Example of essay on critical paper 2

The Professor’s name

In a daily routine life, people unconsciously learn by using classical and operant conditioning. The source of many fears, such as fear from animals and fear from public appearance is closely connected with the classical or operant conditioning. However, not only negative experiences are associated with conditioning, but positive one as well. Classical and operant conditioning are essential for understanding the close connection between our inner self and the surrounding.
One of the elementary principles of learning is classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning where, in time, one stimulus takes over the possibility of inducing a reaction that has been initially evoked by another stimulus. The founder of this type of learning is Pavlov who experimentally determined that conditional reflex has a major importance in the process of learning. Similarly, Skinner also believed in the reaction-stimulus-reaction as a foundation of the conditioned behavior. However, Skinner’s idea of operant learning is based on a belief that the changes in behavior are reactions of an individual on the stimulus from the surroundings. When a certain combination of a stimulus-reaction is adequately rewarded (reinforcement), an individual will be conditioned to react in the same way. The base of Skinner’s S-R theory is reinforcement, both positive and negative. A distinctive feature of operant conditioning in relation to conditional classical conditioning is in the fact that the organism is capable to generate reactions instead o simply reacting to stimuli from the immediate surroundings. As opposed to classical conditioning where the learning is based on the unconsciousness reflex behavior, operant conditioning is characterized learning based on voluntarily basis.
Classical conditioning concepts can be found in many aspects of our lives. Classical conditioning is highly related to the occurrence of appearance of phobias. The well known experiment with a little boy, Albert, proved that phobias can be developed with the model of classical conditioning. As Little Albert did not have any fears from animals, Watson and Rayner proved that with the use of stimulus a phobia can be developed. The experiment started when Albert was 11 months and three days old and finished when he was 1 year and 21 days old (as cited in Green). Watson and Rayner exposed to Albert a white rabbit and ” Not the slightest sign of a fear response was obtained in any situation” (as cited in Green). After associating the rabbit with a loud noise, in the following sessions, Albert showed signs of fear and phobia connected with rabbit. Whenever Albert saw the rabbit he showed negative emotions accompanied with crying. ” These experiments would seem to show conclusively that directly conditioned emotional responses as well as those conditioned by transfer persist, although with a certain loss in the intensity of the reaction, for a longer period than one month” (as cited in Greene). Based on this experiment it was proved that the unconditional stimulus (noise) associated with the conditional one and triggered a fear in not only rabbits, but other things as well.
PTSD occurs due to the classical conditioning. Post-traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder. In a war, the soldiers are exposed to situations such as confinement in a closed space (trench) or a noise from airplanes and tanks. A war is unconditioned stimuli and the fear is unconditional reaction to the surrounding. After the war, the fear associates with situations similar to the ones in the war. For example, a person can experience fear when is a closed space because he was in a trench during the war. PTSD appears when some neutral stimulus associates with a displeasing event, or an image. Therefore, a soldier may experience fear and anxiety when confronted with loud noises that remind them of gunfire or similar. Due to the culturally determined gender roles, most men experience PTSD and women because of the sexual, physical and psychological molestation.
Operant or instrumental conditioning is frequently used to alter some form of behavior. Operant conditioning is a part of behavioral therapy, when the goal of the therapy is to change a certain type of behavior. Even though the four types of operant conditioning exist; the positive reinforcement provides the best results. However, in a situation where the life coach is trying to help someone to stop biting her fingernails, the best result can be achieved through aversive therapy. I would connect the negative stimuli with the type of behavior that I want to change (to stop biting her fingernails). I would give a client a type of nail polish that has a terrible taste to polish her nails, so whenever a client tries to bite her fingernails, the taste would be unpleasant. In this way, a certain type of behavior would be connected with negative stimulus and latter when a patient thinks of biting her fingernail the terrible taste of nail polish would be the first association that would prevent her from repeating this type of behavior.
In case a client wants to get into a better shape a positive reinforcement can be used. The best result can be achieved if it is induced gradually. At the beginning, each time a client practices 15 minutes, a positive reinforcement form the life coach would follow. I would reward a client with a certain compliment regarding his achievement. According to SanFilippo (2013), ” verbally praising a child for correctly producing a target speech sound will likely increase the likelihood that the child will produce the sound correctly on subsequent productions.”  After that, the time needed for reward should be increased until the client reaches 30 minutes of psychical exercise. When the client begins exercising three times a week, per 30 minutes, the reward that is positive reinforcement would increase the client’s self-esteem. Additionally, self-achievement and body changes will be a type of inner positive reinforcement.
People have certain emotions connected to experiences. These emotions can be positive or negative and they derive from classical and operant conditioning. In everyday life, classical conditioning can be notices when associating it with fears, smells and other stimulus. For example, a student can experience negative association with the school just because he is ridiculed by his peers in class. Operant conditioning is important in raising and educating children. Parents use operant conditioning by rewarding a child in order to reinforce a certain type of behavior. Operant conditioning is also used in dog training. In this way, a dog can be trained. Operant conditioning is important because learning habit are created in this way and children become more motivated to learn.

References:

Green, Christopher. Classics in the History of Psychology. Conditioned Emotional Reactions by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920). First Published in Journal of Experimental Psychology 3(1), 1-14. Retrieved from: http://psychclassics. yorku. ca/Watson/emotion. htm
SanFilippo, Deanna (2013). Confidence Building and Positive Reinforcement. The Perfect Playground. Retrieved from: http://www. theperfectplaygroundny. com/blog/? p= 210