L’éducation et la Formation à DistanceParStephen HanleyEDU 6101 – Fondements théoriques de la FÀDMichel Richer, chargé d’encadrement27 de novembre de 2012
Thème #1 : L’éducation et la Formation à Distance
The Role of Distance Learning in Higher Education
137, 000, 000 results in 0. 27 seconds! When I googled ” distance learning” recently, those were the numbers that came up. Why is the adoption of distance learning growing at such an astonishing rate—up to 20% per year? How is distance learning creating new learning environments and affecting organizational relationships? Can distance education ever be as effective as traditional classroom teaching? Does distance learning have a role to play in higher education, and if so, what is that role? How can we reconcile the conflicting points of view about distance education? If you are a stakeholder in the field of higher education—a faculty member, a department head, an administrator—this paper will furnish you with a broader perception of the issues confronting both providers and users of distance education and a deeper understanding of the many factors that have contributed to and affected its evolution until now and will continue to do so in the future. Distance learning is rapidly moving into the mainstream of higher education and is here to stay. Stakeholders who wish to remain relevant must accept this reality and invest the time and effort needed to understand all that distance learning entails, where it is headed, and its role in higher education. First of all, we should define some of the terms used in this paper. The terms distance education and distance learning are often used interchangeably and are considered to refer to ” any learning system where teaching behaviors are separated from learning behaviors. The learner works alone or in a group, guided by study material arranged by the instructor in a location apart from students. Students have the opportunity to communicate with an instructor with the aid of a range of media (such as text, telephone, audio, video, computing and Internet technology, etc.)” (Task force established by the Board of Directors of AACSB, July 1999, revised 2007). Another author adds: ” a process to create and provide access to learning when the source of information and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both” (Honeyman & Miller, 1993)(italics added). Nevertheless, a stricter definition of the two terms indicates some differences. In addition to the basic characteristics described above, distance education usually refers to teaching and learning that are linked to an educational institution, whereas distance learning is a broader concept that refers to the use of educational materials or media by learners who are not necessarily linked to an educational organisation or engaged in communication with an instructor. When distance education is combined with face-to-face or classroom instruction, three other terms often appear in conjunction—blended, hybrid, and mixed-mode. Other words and phrases that frequently arise in the context of distance learning include computer-based-learning (CBT), Internet-based training (IBT), web-based training (WBT), and e-learning. Basically, these terms all refer to distance learning but focus on the specific media used to implement the learning process. Finally, a note about educational systems—in most countries, formal, structured education is divided into three stages: primary, secondary, and tertiary, and within this framework, tertiary education corresponds to higher education. However, before examining the role of distance learning in higher education, what exactly is higher education? The Encyclopedia Britannica defines it as ” any of various types of education given in postsecondary institutions of learning and usually affording, at the end of a course of study, a named degree, diploma, or certificate of higher studies. Higher-educational institutions include not only universities and colleges but also various professional schools that provide preparation in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. Higher education also includes teacher-training schools, junior colleges, and institutes of technology (Britannica, 2009).” Since higher education is generally associated with the obtaining of an academic degree or a professional certification, additional terms such as ” further education” in England and ” continued learning” or ” continuing education” in North America have arisen. These two terms include a broad range of post-secondary learning activities and programs and take on added significance when considering the subject of distance learning. Continued learning may include non-credit courses and programs from universities and colleges, non-degree career training, corporate university and workforce training, self-directed learning, and even personal enrichment courses. Comparing higher education to a tapestry may help us better visualize the role of distance learning in higher education. A tapestry takes threads of different sizes and colors and weaves them together to create a ” scene” or ” picture” from a number of individual ” elements”. In our simile, education is the ” tapestry”, higher education the ” scene”, and distance learning one of the ” elements”. Following this line of thought, we will begin with a broad look at education and how it has evolved over the centuries, later narrow our focus onto higher education, and finally examine the role of distance learning in higher education. We will also identify certain patterns and tendencies that appear and reappear in educational systems adopted by nations and cultures over thousands of years. As we carry out our investigation, we will pay special attention to paradigm shifts[1], both in the field of education and in communication technologies, and see how they have worked together to produce profound changes in distance learning. The nature and scope of this paper does not permit us to follow the entire history of education from its earliest origins, so our research will focus on the countries and civilizations that have had the greatest influence on present-day education in the western world. Our starting point will be the Archaic Period of Greece (700-480 BCE). During the Archaic Period, Greek society was headed by a military aristocracy, and formal education was limited to the sons of the nobility who received individual instruction from wise and trusted older men. As we would expect, military training was provided; however, strongly influenced by the Homer-inspired cultivated patriot-warrior, dance, poetry, and instrumental music became essential elements in the education of the elite. In fact, reverence for Homer constituted the foundation for Greek culture and education until the end of antiquity[2]and in fact remained so until much later during the Byzantine Empire (5th -15th centuries AD) (Britannica, 2010). With the maturing of the ” polis” or city-state where the individual citizen was devoted to the community and willing to die for it, an early manifestation of nationalism became apparent. In Sparta, from about 550 BCE, the education of boys was completely focused on their preparation to be soldiers, and the education of girls for their future role as mothers. Two patterns affecting education were apparent—the limiting of formal education to the nobility and the wealthy, and the modeling of education to achieve political goals. In contrast with Sparta, the competing city-state of Athens adopted a democratic form of government. As a result, even though Athenians were prepared to fight for their city and property, their educational system placed greater importance on the civil aspect of life and culture than on armed combat. Schooling remained the privilege of the wealthier elite and included basic reading and writing, formal literacy with the study of poets, playwrights, and historians, teaching based on the legends of Hesiod and Homer, and physical and military activities. Of equal importance was the providing of moral education, instruction in good conduct, and character formation. The Greek Classical Period (490-323 BCE) witnessed the appearance of the Sophists[3]and the introduction of a system of higher education that was open to anyone who had the time and money. This draws our attention to a new paradigm as the previous model of tutor and student, one-on-one, was replaced by a systemized method of instruction that involved the teaching of groups of students ” for the purpose of incorporating the results of learning into ways of thinking, acting, speaking, and feeling” (Saettler, 1968). They created the first formalized rules of grammar based on the analysis of poetry and developed the main principles of instruction—forms of language, oratory, and thought. Their use of rhetoric, dialectic, and grammar ” dominated the design of the quadrivium[4]and the trivium[5](the seven liberal arts, as they came to be called) which made up the curriculum of European education for a thousand years to come” (Saettler, 1968). The Sophist educational discourse also established a third pattern that has characterized higher education to this day—the designing of programs in response to the specific needs of society. In the case of Athens, for example, becoming involved in public affairs replaced athletics as the field of predominant interest for ambitious Greek men, so the teaching process was completely focused on education for political participation. To this end, their program was founded on two underlying disciplines—dialectic, the search for truth through the art of logical argument, and rhetoric, the art of persuasive speaking or writing (Britannica, 2010). The Academy, established by the philosopher Plato around 387 BCEAt the beginning of the 4th century BCE, two schools of higher education were founded that led to a more defined organization of Classical Greek higher education. Around 390 BCE, the orator Isocrates (436 – 338 BCE) established a school, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world, albeit not a university as we imagine one today, with ” formal syllabuses and formal lecture-courses, of examinations and degrees” (Barnes, 1995). Shortly thereafter, in 387 BCE, a rival school was set up by the philosopher Plato. Previously, there had been no set curriculum for higher education in Athens since the Sophist teachers who were the principle providers often travelled to wherever their services were needed. Whereas the principal objective of Plato’s educational program was to obtain an understanding of ultimate reality through research in philosophy and the sciences, Isocrates, who is known as ” The Father of Liberal Education” in the Western European tradition, espoused the search for practical wisdom through experiential and problem-based learning (Marsh, 2010). The close of the Classical Period in Greece came with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, but we cannot go on to the Hellenistic Period without first mentioning another great Classical educator, the philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE), tutor of the young prince who became Alexander the Great. He too founded a school (the Lyceum), and his writings, which continue to be the object of active academic study today, ” were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics” (Anon., 2007). Aristotle believed that education should be controlled by the state with the principle objective of preparing citizens to live for the ends of the state, a concept that would be adopted later by many countries. In book eight of his Politics, he clearly declares his position: ” No one will doubt that the legislator should direct his attention above all to the education of youth; for the neglect of education does harm to the constitution. The citizen should be molded to suit the form of government under which he lives (Hicks, 2011)”. Alexander the Great’s unparalleled military conquests extended the boundaries of his empire as far as northern India and opened the way to centuries of Greek settlement and rule over non-Greek areas. This period, designated the Hellenistic Period, began in 323 BCE, following Alexander’s death, and continued until the fall of Egypt, the final remnant of Alexander’s empire, to Rome in 30 BCE. The role that the building of hundreds of new Greek cities played in the impressive spread of Hellenic culture cannot be overemphasized. Many of these started out as military colonies built near Asiatic cities to house a thousand or more Hellenic veterans who would be available for military duty should the need arise. When not on active duty, they lived on small farms while still enjoying some of the amenities of a typical Greek city. Others were full-fledged cities which were styled as a polis, but were not truly independent city-states. With few exceptions, citizenship was limited to Hellenes, and the cities were governed by an oligarchy made up of an economic and cultural elite. Although these far-flung settlements were generally surrounded by a non-Greek majority, they were able to preserve their culture and their distinctive ethnical identity. Their success was mainly due to the ruling oligarchy’s enthusiastic promotion of ” paideia”—the upbringing or education of children. Wherever they settled, the Greeks remained true to their own system of education. Dr. Davey Naugle explains the concept of this system: ” In an extended sense, it is the equivalent of the Latin humanitas (from which we get the humanities), signifying the general learning that should be the possession of all human beings. It had to do with the shaping of the Greek character, and was a concept at the center of the Greek educational genius which is the secret of the undying influence of Greece upon all subsequent ages (Naugle, n. d.). Paideia: “—the classical Greek system of education and training, which came to include gymnastics, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, music, mathematics, geography, natural history, astronomy and the physical sciences, history of society and ethics, and philosophy—the complete pedagogical course of study necessary to produce a well-rounded, fully educated citizen.”—Richard Tarnas, The Passion of the WesternMind, pp. 29-30″ (Naugle, n. d.). The significance of this accomplishment is underlined by the fact that Hellenistic Greece was not only able to preserve and spread its cultural identity throughout Alexander’s extensive empire, but also that its civilization and pattern of education were able to flourish for centuries, surviving antiquity, and giving birth to the civilization and education that much later characterized the Byzantine Empire (330 to 1453 AD). Setting a pattern which is reflected to a great extent in educational systems today, education in the Hellenistic world occupied the young from seven to twenty years of age. Primary schools were attended by children between the ages of seven and fourteen, secondary education provided a bridge between primary school and higher education, and higher education covered several areas including the humanities and the sciences. In primary education, children received training in good manners and morals as well as other lessons from paidagōgos (tutors or guardians), and reading, writing, and numeration from grammatistes (teachers of letters). Secondary education provided a program of intermediate studies—principally literature and mathematics—with the objective of preparing students for the different branches of higher learning. The study of literature was focused on the presentation and explanation of the great classic authors while the mathematics program was composed of the four disciplines—arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and harmonics. Higher education could either take the form of ephebeia, a kind of civic and military training that lasted two years from age 18-20, or of formal education in the sciences, medicine, or philosophy. The first two were not institutionalized, but rather were establishments that brought together scientific staffs or physicians for the purpose of research, and small groups of students received training informally from some of the scholars who also taught, or by working with and observing practicing physicians as they attended to their patients. Philosophy was taught privately by individual masters; however, since these were well organized and often formed groups, an institutional character can be assigned to their teaching. Finally, rhetoric, the art of public discourse, was at the center of the educational process becoming one of the cornerstones of higher education and considered a prerequisite for social integration. Before going on to the Roman Period, it would be beneficial to highlight the ways in which the Greek educational system has influenced education in the western world to this day. During the nearly 700 years examined so far, a number of significant trends have emerged, the first being the evolution from the one-on-one training of individual students by tutors to the teaching of groups of students by professional teachers at schools or institutions of higher learning. Additionally, formal education was basically limited to the nobility or the wealthy who enjoyed the status of citizens, discrimination on the basis of gender was evident, and education was modeled so as to achieve political goals. Schooling during the Archaic Period (700-480 BCE) focused on military training, moral education, instruction in good conduct, character formation, and basic reading and writing skills. The Classical Period, the golden age of Greek culture, experienced a paradigm shift in education. It saw the introduction of a system of higher education which included the creation of the first formalized rules of grammar and the development of the main principles of instruction—forms of language, oratory, and thought. A two-part curriculum—the quadrivum and the trivium—was established corresponding to the seven liberal arts taught in universities today. The Sophists established a new pattern in education—the designing of programs in response to the specific needs of society. Early in this period, two schools of higher learning were founded, the first by Isocrates (c. 390 BCE) and the other shortly thereafter by Plato (c. 387 BCE), leading to a set curriculum and a more defined organization of Classical Greek higher education. Not much later, Aristotle (384-322 BCE), famous philosopher and scientist, established his own school called the Lyceum, and his writings provided the foundation for Western philosophy, including morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics and metaphysics. During the Hellenistic Period, the influence of Greek culture and education became pervasive due to the construction of hundreds of Greek cities in the territories conquered by Alexander the Great and as a result of the ruling oligarchy’s enthusiastic promotion of ” paideia”—the upbringing and education of children as Greeks. The curriculum was extended to include gymnastics, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, music, mathematics, geography, natural history, astronomy and the physical sciences, history of society and ethics, and philosophy. Setting a pattern which is reflected to a great extent in educational systems today, education in the Hellenistic world occupied the young from seven to twenty years of age and provided for primary, secondary, and tertiary or higher education. Formal higher education focused on science, medicine, and philosophy, but only the study of philosophy could be considered as institutionalized at that time. Early regal Rome (753-509 BCE) and the Roman Republic (509-27 BCE) were dominated by a rural aristocracy of landed proprietors, and consequently, education was centered around the family and prepared youth for farm management, military duties, and good morals. However, as early as the second century BCE, as Rome gradually took control of parts of the Greek empire, of Greece itself in 146 BCE, and finally, of the entire Hellenized Orient, it experienced the influence of Greek culture and education. For example, if a Roman wished to be considered cultured, he would have to obtain the same education as that received by a native Greek, and eventually, Latin educational institutions adopted Hellenistic programs and methods of education. Paradoxically, conqueror Rome had been captivated by the conquered Greeks—by the more evolved Greek culture and system of education. Roman writer Horace admitted: ” Captive Greece captivated her rude conqueror and introduced the arts to rustic Latium” (Epistles, II, i, 156). Since Roman education, for all intents and purposes, continued in the Greek tradition, we will only touch on the few important changes that occurred, especially in higher education. Observing the Greeks and their development of the art of rhetoric, Roman aristocrats understood how useful the power of rhetoric could be for a statesman. For this reason, the oratorical art was the most popular subject of higher education in Roman times. However, Rome also introduced a completely new field of higher education—law. Due to the importance of law in Roman life, the practice of law opened up a profitable new career path, and accordingly, law schools were created to provide the necessary education. Initially taught within the framework of apprenticeship, from the time of Cicero (106-43 BCE), a systematic theoretical exposition was added thereby elevating Roman law to a scientific discipline. Beginning with the 2nd century CE, legal education acquired its definitive tools including systematic elementary treatises such as the Institutiones of Gaius, manuals of procedure, commentaries on the law, and systematic collections of jurisprudence. The explosive growth of Christianity between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE could have led to a new paradigm for education in the Roman Empire, one developed along the model of a religious school in which children learned through the study of the Holy Bible. Nevertheless, even though early Christians were opposed to the pagan customs and beliefs on which Classical secular education was founded, most apparently felt that the practical value of knowing the Classical culture taught in Roman schools merited sending their children in spite of the risks. With time and the general conversion of Roman society and the adoption of Christianity as the official state religion, Christianity completely assimilated and took over Classical education. In the 5th century CE, Rome lost its western provinces to the Germanic kingdoms but continued to exist in the eastern Mediterranean area in the form of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium was characterized by a common, state-sanctioned religion (Eastern Orthodox), a shared Greek Culture, and an educational system that was inherited from its Greco-Roman past. The three stages of education—elementary, secondary, and higher education—were conserved. Children from 7 to 10 years of age attended elementary school where they learned to read and write. Teaching methods emphasized memorization and copying exercises. Interestingly, because elementary education was widely available not only in towns but sometimes in the countryside as well, literacy was much more widespread than in western Europe. On the other hand, secondary education was only available in the larger cities. Teachers (grammatikos) grammar and vocabulary based on Classical and ecclesiastical Greek literature. From the 9th century on, a collection of rules of orthography and grammar called Cannons of Theognostos came into use (Antonopoulou, 2010), and from the 14th century on, systematic collections of questions and answers on grammar (Gruyter, 2000). The first step in our journey will be a brief look at the history of the first three generations of distance education, the needs they were trying to satisfy, and how evolving technologies played an important role in their development. Next, we will examine significant developments in pedagogical theory, how they have affected current pedagogical practices in higher education, how they can be applied and adapted to distance education, and in what ways they are supported or limited by distance learning. After analyzing the reasons behind the explosive growth of distance learning and some of the unique advantages it offers, we will investigate the fourth and fifth generations of distance learning, where distance learning is headed, and how it will affect traditional institutions of higher education. Finally, we will define the role of distance learning in higher education, and the conditions it must satisfy in order to fulfill this role. Distance education is not something new! A man named Caleb Phillips has the honor of being the first person recorded to have offered distance learning. In an advertisement placed in the Boston Gazette on March 20, 1728, Phillips offered weekly lessons by post to students who were interested in taking shorthand lessons (Bower & Hardy, 2004). However, it was only around the middle of the 19th century that distance education began to take hold. In the 1840s, Isaac Pitman taught shorthand by mail in Great Britain, while in 1858, the University of London began to offer distance learning degrees, and in 1892, after having developed the concept of extended education while serving as president of the University of Chicago in the United States, William Rainey Harper promoted the idea of school courses by correspondence. Some years later, at the turn of the twentieth century, in 1911, the University of Queensland in Australia established a Department of Correspondence Studies. Delving into the history of distance education does much more than satisfy our curiosity; it gives us much-needed insight into how developing technologies, working in synergy with effective pedagogy, enhance distance teaching (Anderson, 2012). At least until the middle of the 21st century, the evolution of distance education was generally divided into three definite but overlapping generations described by Kaufman as correspondence, distance, and open and distance education (Bates, 2005; Kaufman, 1989). As their names imply, each generation is associated with a significant change in the way distance learning was mediated. Nevertheless, the use of the term ” generation” in this context has been disputed due to its implication that one stage has finished and another begun. In reality though, none of the technologies that have characterized these generations has been completely abandoned to date. Instead, the range of options made available to distance education designers and learners has increased. Supporting this idea, Stuart Kauffman, in his book Investigations, states that as new technologies become available, they enable and multiply the number of adjoining possibilities (Kauffman, 2002), and Kelly confirms, saying that few (if any) technologies have ever actually disappeared (Kelly, 2010). Although a considerable number of exciting technological inventions surfaced during the sixties, seventies, and eighties and were successfully used in distance education, many of them can only be classified as ancillary media (e. g. radio and television broadcasting, audio cassettes, video cassettes) because they did not significantly change the way distance education was delivered. On the other hand, a few technological advances did alter the delivery of distance education to such an extent that they are considered as having initiated a paradigm shift (Peters, 2004). Print-based correspondence was the defining characteristic of the first generation (1850s–1960) of distance education. Student-teacher interaction was individualized but slow and infrequent. Bates concurs and explains: ” The first generation is characterized by the predominant use of a single technology and a lack of direct student interaction with the institution providing the teaching or awarding accreditation” (Bates, 2005). Typically, a person or institution would prepare and send students study materials via post or ship, together with a syllabus, and sometimes, a list of examination times and places. After finishing a course segment, a scheduled assignment, and/or doing a test, the autonomous learner would return the evaluation material, and a teacher or tutor would grade the material and provide feedback. Depending on the nature of the course and the student’s objectives, he or she could then take an examination from a recognized institution in order to obtain accreditation. Considering that the first scheduled airmail service only began in 1911 (Field, 1969), response times that depended on the postal system via railroad or ships were very long, and effective learner support was very limited. In some cases, however, two-way communication was made possible through face-to-face meetings, tutoring by correspondence, or by telephone. Second generation (1960-1985) distance education continued to use print, but was mainly characterized by the use of mixed media delivery including audiotape, videotape, computer-based learning (e. g. CML/CAL/IMM), and interactive video (Taylor, 2001). As was the case with the first generation, direct student interaction was still limited. Consequently, the use of mass media to transmit course materials greatly expanded the distance user base, in some cases to over 100, 000 students. Third generation (1985-1995)As applicable technologies have continued to advance rapidly and generate changes in the way distance learning is being mediated, more authors have begun to speak of a fourth and fifth generation (Taylor, 1995; Taylor, 2001). Fourth generation (1985-1995)Fifth generation (1995-200?)Table 1, taken from CAUSE Professional Series, #17, entitled ” Distance Learning: The Shift to Interactivity”, provides an excellent overview of the first four generations of distance education along with a short description of their primary features, time frame, media used, communication features, student characteristics and goals, educational philosophy and curriculum design, and infrastructure components (link to table 1). The second half of the nineteenth century experienced a paradigm shift in the field of education in Europe and North America, and the first generation (1850s-1960) of distance education made a significant contribution. Previously, the educational system had been marked by three main characteristics: education was centered around religion, education was only for the wealthy, and the subjects taught had little practical value in satisfying the demands of the industrial revolution. However, especially in the latter part of the 19th century, the model of education in Europe and North America underwent drastic changes that were designed to furnish the kinds of skills that were necessary to sustain the booming industrial growth. Technology, reflected in the availability of print media together with the development of a mail system using railroads and ships, made this shift possible, but what circumstances led to this dramatic change in the educational model? An essential part of the ” element” of distance learning that we will consider is the way evolving communication technologies have enabled the convergence of effective pedagogy and distance education. For example, when education in Europe and North America experienced a paradigm shift[6]during the second half of the nineteenth century, the first generation of distance education (1850s-1960) made a significant contribution. As we continue, we will discover how paradigm shifts, The Riddle of Distance Education: Promise, Problems and Applications for Development is the title of a paper written by Judith Adler Hellman for the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (Hellman, June 1, 2003). In very few words, it clearly underlines both the difficulty of establishing the role of distance learning in higher education and the areas that must be examined in order to define that role. Anderson, T. D. J., 2012. Learning technology through three generations of technology enhanced distance education pedagogy. Anon., 2007. The Complete Aristotle. Web Edition ed. Adelaide: ebooks. adelaide. edu. au/a/aristotle. Barnes, J., 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle. 1 ed. 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Post-secondary distance education in Canada: policies, practices, and priorities, pp. 61-78. Kelly, K., 2010. What Technology Wants. s. l.: Viking. Marsh, C., 2010. Millenia of Discord: The Controversial Educational Program of Isocrates. Sage Journals, 8(3), p. 291. Moore, G., 1989. Three types of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), pp. 1-6. Peters, O., 2004. The Educational Paradigm Shifts in Distance Education in Transition – New Trends and Challenges. 4th ed. s. l.: Oldenburg: BIS. Saettler, 1968. A History of Instructional Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Saettler, P., 1968. A History of Instructional Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Task force established by the Board of Directors of AACSB, July 1999, revised 2007. Quality Issues in Distance Learning, s. l.: AACSB – The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business. Taylor, J., 1995. Distance Education Technologies: The Fourth Generation. 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