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Police recruitment criteria

COURSE NAME: Introduction to PolicingCOURSE CODE: CCJ22TUTOR: Marni ManningSTUDENTS NAME: Gillian TaylorSTUDENT NUMBER: S2600898DUE DATE: 26/9/2011WORD COUNT: 2020 not including tables and references. EXTENSION NUMBER: 21279ASSIGNMENT QUESTION: Complete a literature review with the purpose ofanalysing the validity of two of the selection criteria that are currently used inthe selection process for police recruits. Selection Criteria 1:?  Applicants must have completed furthereducation since completion of High School.

(Abilities/Education) Selection Criteria 4:?  Applicants must possess the required personality profile which is deemed suitable for the enactment of operational police duties. (Personality Assessment)Issue With any employment opportunity there are candidates better suited than others to the specific requirements of the position; given the stress and dangers of police work there are some who may prove dangerous if recruited (Ashkanasy, Bowen, Rohde, & Wu, 2007; Chappelle, Novy, Sowin, & Thompson, 2010). There is a developing idea that recruitment selection can be refined with the use of personality profiling and tertiary education as selection tools with common agreement between researchers that personality and higher education shows job relativeness and a predictive ability in job and training performance (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Bevan, 2006; Chappelle et al., 2010; Cochrane, Tett & Vandecreek, 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Drew & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Also common results between studies is that these tools can assist the police selection board in ensuring the correct people are accepted or rejected according to their knowledge, skills, and abilities (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Bevan, 2006; Chappelle et al.

, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Personality profiling research shows five primarily identified and agreed upon characteristics that assist in individuals??™ abilities in performing their police duties (Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006). These ??? Big Five??™ are identified as performance indicators and include: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness and each involve further personality traits which also aid individuals in their abilities to perform their police duties (Ashkanasy et al.

, 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006). Education is also shown through research as aiding the police recruits in their daily administrative tasks as well as while in the field, providing them with greater knowledge and understanding of police policies and procedures (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Bevan, 2006; Chappelle et al., 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007).

Researching the effectiveness of police recruitment processes and refining areas to limit the number of incompatible candidates allows a greater chance for individuals suited for police work to be accepted and those not suited to be refused (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999). This report is designed to critically analyse the current research which indicates whether personality profiling and higher education are valid selection criterion. Included is a brief overview of research on personality and higher education, the relationship they each have with job relativeness and both field and training performance. Background: Personality Literature Review Cognitive ability is considered to be a great indicator for job performance but there is some variance in the performance results that are not explained by cognitive ability alone, personality indicators help explain this variance (Gaughan, Miller, Pryor & Lynam, 2009; Ono, Sachau, Deal, Englert & Taylor, 2011).

Personality refers to the cognitive ability and affective structures maintained by individuals to facilitate their adjustments to the events, people, and situations they encounter (Gaughan et al., 2009). Research shows five primary personality domains with subsequent personality indicators commonly referred to as the ??? Big Five??™, conscientiousness, neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011).

Each of the ??? Big Five??™ show a relationship to job performance and demonstrate job relativeness, those who perform well in the personality tests are predicted to have fewer incidents and citizen complaints, fewer serious field accidents, and higher supervisory ratings (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). There is a strong relationship shown through studies between conscientiousness and job performance and given the listed attributes are necessary traits in police officers there is demonstrated job relativeness (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al.

, 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). High scores in the domain of conscientiousness indicate the more ideal candidate, showing organisation, competence, self discipline, and responsibility (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al.

, 2011). While those with higher scores are more likely to make faster and more sensible decisions those with lower scores are indicative of those prone to the negative attributes of this category such as procrastination (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al.

, 2011). Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions such as hostility, anxiety, and depression (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011).

Police officers need a great degree of impulse control and emotional stability given the dangerous situations they often face therefore showing job relativeness (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). There is a strong relationship between neuroticism and job performance, those with low scores in this category would be the preferred, demonstrating a stronger ability to cope with stressful situations without becoming too highly emotional (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al.

, 2011). Extraversion shows job relativeness as significant inter-personal skills are needed for the duties of police officers (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). Those with low scores in this category are termed introverts and indicative of the ??? wrong??™ stuff; officers must be approachable, assertive, and persuasive, both to the public and their fellow officers (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). Those who score higher in this category are the ideal candidates, demonstrating an ability to predict job performance as there is a higher tendency to express positive emotions such as warmth, and sociability (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al.

, 2009; Ono et al., 2011). Agreeableness refers to the friendly, considerate, and modest behaviour necessary for police officers and thus showing job relativeness (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al.

, 2011). High scorers are the preferred candidates in this category, demonstrating a degree of unselfishness, compassion, and cooperation (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). Low scores in this category reveal the individual is likely to cause future issues if accepted to the police force, demonstrating non compliance, criticism, and scepticism and therefore showing a relationship to job performance (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al.

, 2011). Openness to experience as a personality domain attempts to capture the process of using cognition, intelligence, contemplativeness, with unconventionality (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011).

Openness as a domain shows job relativeness given the changing policing methods away from traditional approaches (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). High scorers are the preferred candidates, demonstrating more imagination and open mindedness, willing to entertain novel ideas, think more divergently, and have a more positive attitude towards learning (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al.

, 2011). Job performance relationships are also shown with higher scores in this category given the innovative methods of police direction, using more innovative policing methods such as Community Oriented Policing (COP) and Problem Oriented Policing (POP) Programs (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). Low scores would indicate individuals more conventional in their behaviour and conservative in their outlooks and is demonstrated in their results in training proficiency in the police academy (Chappelle et al, 2010; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al.

, 2009; Ono et al., 2011). Relationships between personality and job performance is commented on occasionally due to the limited population sizes and limited law enforcement agencies involved upon which conclusions are drawn (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006). Although this is considered to be a limitation there is yet to be counterclaims made to disprove a relationship between the two (Ashkanasy et al.

, 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006). Personality assessments were listed as a valid selection tool that would enhance recruitment selection by the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (1973) and given that each of the ??? Big Five??™ show job relatedness and ability to predict job and training performance they are a valid selection tool (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006). Background: Education literature review Cognitive ability studies show a strong correlation with performance, accounting for up to 25% of performance measure variances, there is also the belief among researchers that higher levels of education increases the openness and flexibility of ones belief system (Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Ono et al., 2011; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007).

The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (1973) lists higher education as a valid tool given the relationship demonstrated through studies of increasing the knowledge, skills, and abilities of police officers (Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Ono et al., 2011; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Tertiary education enhances the cognitive ability facilitates the acquisition of facts, procedures, and rules specific to the job and demonstrates greater knowledge of processes and procedures involved with daily administrative tasks and field work of police candidates and is gaining increasing support as a selection tool (Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Ono et al., 2011; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Increased importance is placed on education as a recruitment selection tool due to the greater importance placed on the abilities to use faster and better decision making, innovation, tolerance, and communication (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Ono et al., 2011; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Smith, Locke, and Fenster (1970) share similar results to Dalley (1975) where those with higher education were significantly less authoritarian than non tertiary educated colleagues (Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004). Research by Smith and Aamodt (1997), Rydberg and Terril (2010), Rodberg and Bonn (2004), and Birzer and Tannehill (2001) show a modest but positive relationship between higher education and job relatedness for the police force with entry requirements into the academy and training.

Higher education is indicated as providing greater and effective written and oral communication, higher innovativeness, and larger understanding and tolerance of minorities, fewer citizen complaints, fewer disciplinary actions, and likely to use deadly force less frequently (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Ono et al., 2011; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Given the requirement for police agencies to be reflective of the community members there were fears of education as a selection requirement as discriminatory (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Although there is a relationship to performance and job relativeness, there must not be negative impacts made against minorities (Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004). Davis v. City of Dallas and Griggs v.

Duke Power (as cited in Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004 p. 480) agreed that the college requirements had discriminative affects however also ruled that higher education as an employment tool is appropriate (Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004). It was ruled that certain requirements, such as higher education, can be justified regardless of discrimination against minorities, so long as the performance benefits are judged to outweigh the discriminatory affects (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Research has demonstrated job relativeness and that performance increases with higher education (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). In order to make higher education a valid tool, there are programs to minimise the discriminatory affects, programs such as ??? IPROWD??™, ??? Indigenous Police Recruitment Our Way Delivery??™ Program (NSW Police IPROWD Program Expands across NSW in 2011, 2010; NSW Police Force Aboriginal Employment Strategy 2009-2012, 2009; Aboriginal Strategic Direction 2007-2010, 2007). ??? IPROWD??™ is a partnered program between the NSW Police Force, TAFE NSW, and NSW Government (NSW Police IPROWD Program Expands Across NSW in 2011, 2010; NSW Police Force Aboriginal Employment Strategy 2009-2012, 2009; Aboriginal Strategic Direction 2007-2010, 2007).

This involves an 18 week bridging course for Indigenous adults where students complete a curriculum which combines communication, information technology, writing and presentation skills, workplace ethics, Aboriginal Studies, fitness, and first aid (NSW Police IPROWD Program Expands Across NSW in 2011, 2010). Once the course is successfully completed they gain a TAFE NSW certificate III in Vocation and Study Pathways, thus fulfilling the prerequisite of higher education needed for police recruitment selection and acceptance into the police academy education program (NSW Police IPROWD Program Expands Across NSW in 2011, 2010; NSW Police Force Aboriginal Employment Strategy 2009-2012, 2009; Aboriginal Strategic Direction 2007-2010, 2007). Limitations of these results are the weight in which education as a selection tool can be justified, given the potential for discrimination against those without access to a higher education (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Another limitation is that data is not compiled evenly and over the individuals??™ career path which raises questions on whether it is really possible to say whether higher education was really a contributing factor in the individuals??™ ability to gain employment in the police force (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Research on the efficient use of police resources is necessary in order to document, monitor, assess, evaluate, and refine the ongoing operations of police power, to insure that police power is exercised in ways that are effective and consistent with public and political values (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). A US report on recruitment that shows there is a high failure rate of those lacking knowledge of the processes and qualifications of police work with a large portion failing to pass the first selection stage (Johnson, 2005). According to Johnson (2005), Captain of Sacramento police department, implementing information outlining processes and qualifications saw less waste of resources and finances both in terms of recruitment selection boards, as well as academy and training expenses (Johnson, 2005). Other Information Table 1 shows the ??? Big Five??™ domains and the personality traits involved that demonstrate a relationship to job performance according to research studies, indicating also the desired levels of each domain conducive to police work.

Table 2 shows the amount of Police Departments that use Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSA) and personality selection tools with a further breakdown of which personality tests are used in Table 3. Table 4 and 5 show the specific education requirements for entry and promotion within the police force, education which is considered to be included under KSA, given that research shows higher education improves KSA requirements. Table 1: NEO PI-R Domain and Facet scores and designations for the Best Entry-Level Officers as described by Field Training Officers [pic]Table 2: Percentage of Departments that use selection procedures [pic]Table 3: Personality tests used according to Department size [pic]Table 4: Minimum application requirements [pic]Table 5: Education requirements for entry and promotion in the police force [pic]Recommendation Effective policing requires a level of guardedness and circumspection as well as functionality, intelligent, sociable and heightened awareness; research evaluates and refines selection procedures to ensure those who do not possess these qualities enter into the police force (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Bevan, 2006; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Gaughan et al., 2009; Murphy, 1999; Ono et al.

, 2011; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007) Personality testing has received widespread acceptance in predicting work related behaviour and performance (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011).

Those who perform well are predicted to have fewer incidents and citizen complaints, fewer serious field accidents, and higher supervisory ratings while those who perform poorly could be indicative of being a danger to fellow officers, themselves, and their community (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011).

Personality assessments are a valid tool listed by The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (1973) as well as consistency of results across a variety of studies in job and training performance, job relativeness, and lack of counterclaims (Ashkanasy et al., 2007; Chappelle et al, 2010; Cochrane et al., 2003; Detrick, & Chibnall, 2006; Gaughan et al., 2009; Ono et al., 2011). The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (1973) also recommends education as a valid selection tool due to its job relativeness and demonstration to increase the knowledge, skills, and abilities required of individuals joining the police force (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). Although no specific degree is required for entry to the police academy certain levels of tertiary education are required (Drew & Prenzler, 2010).

All completed tertiary subjects provide greater ease with the administrative tasks required for the daily police activities, and also greater communication and empathy skills towards other members of the public and specifically minorities (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). No counterclaims have been made although questions have been raised as to the amount of weighting education should be given as data is not compiled over the course of individuals studies and employment history (Bevan, 2006; Drew, & Prenzler, 2010; Murphy, 1999; Rodberg, & Bonn, 2004; Wimshurst & Allard, 2007). It is the recommendation of this report that both personality profiling, and education, are valid police recruitment selection criterion, demonstrating job relativeness, job and training performance, supervisory ratings, and citizen complaints and incidents.

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