Unit one

Unit ONE Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, Reformation Essay Outline #1 kk Introduction The Catholic Reformation was developed to rebuild Roman Catholicism and put an end to the spread of Protestantism. Appealed to the community by reviving catholic ideas and getting rid of corruption restored the Catholic Church. As a counter attack to the Protestant Reformation, Catholic teachings were reinforced in an effort to oppress Protestant beliefs. Luther’s Main Beliefs Humans can reach salvation through justification by faith alone (through faith in God, not good works). The bible is supreme authority, believed in the two sacraments of Baptism and Communion, was in between consubstantiation and transubstantiation. Had a value in all vocations and believed marriage was good and healthy for priests. Supported the priesthood of all believers, stating that the church includes all believers. Catholic Beliefs The Jesuits and Ignatius of Loyola established many highly disciplined schools. Francis Xavier developed schools and missions in Asia and other countries to counter Protestant beliefs. Pope Paul III and Paul IV re-established honor to the Papacy and created the Holy Office. Roman—Catholic Church reformed papacy to exterminate corruption and prove the value in the Catholic Church. Council of Trent Declared that only the Church could interpret the Scripture and recognized the authority of the popes. To reach salvation it was required to have strong faith in God and do good works. The seven sacraments were restored along with transubstantiation and clerical celibacy. Obtained doctrines that presented the popes with supremacy over all bishops and councils. Conclusion The Catholic Reformation was initiated through the want to afflict Protestant beliefs. Rebuilt and restored the Roman—Catholic Church but mended the corruption within the popes. Also known as the Counter Reformation, established a system that got rid of corruption and could no longer be taken over. Essay Outline #4 Introduction Europeans started a lager scale of trade all around the world; also developed the Triangular Trade Route. Population increased by 20 million, which lead to a greater demand for goods. Price inflation caused the value of money to drop while prices continued to rise. Thesis: Certain factors such as the development of the Triangular Trade Route, increase in population, price inflation, and the achievements of joint—stock companies, all led to the growth of a flourishing economic and political system known as commercial capitalism. Trade and Mercantilism A route that allowed Europeans to trade with Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Trade and mercantilism became very successful; people began to trade at a larger and more global scale. Finite amount of wealth; bring as much wealth to your country as possible. A favorable balance of trade meant that you sold more than you bought and bought only from people of your own country. Population Growth The growth of population by 20 million caused a greater demand for goods. More people coming in meant more people wanting to buy products and majorly helped the buyers market. The greater demand for goods helped the economic productivity and increased the value of goods. Many people had money to spend, which later also led to the development of inflation. Price Revolution Price inflation meant that the value of money went down while prices went up. Traders and merchants become successful but other businesses and stock companies drop. Joint stock companies emerged and entrepreneurs made combined investments. New industries of mining, shipbuilding, and weapon making also began to develop. Conclusion Mercantilism and the finite amount of wealth along with the favorable balance of trade. The local system converted to a more global national state system of a larger nation. The decline of early commercial centers sparked the ideas of private ownership of property and an ever-expanding system known as commercial capitalism. Unit TWO Exploration, Conquest, State Building Essay Outline #2 Issues (King vs. Parliament) How they were resolved Parliament wants more power over the king King wants Divine Right with no Parliament involved House of Commons wants to have a say in the government King wants to keep the old Catholic-style hierarchy (absolute monarchy) Puritans wanted the Scottish Presbyterian model (elect leaders) King gave nobles weak positions in Versailles to make the feel important Strengthen authority by eliminating armies and cities of Huguenots Parliament tries to create documents reasoning with the King Demolish warrants created by Parliament that limited king’s power Petition of Right 1628, king needs Parliaments consent **all leading to the English Civil War Unit Three The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment Choose one of the following questions to write a formal essay outline including: a thesis statement, topic sentences, supporting evidence, and concluding statement. Write a paragraph response for the other three. What impact did the Scientific Revolution have on society and religion? The Scientific Revolution greatly impacted society and religion mainly through the conversion to a more secular civilization and the attempt to revive the importance of God. Many scientists began to question and test old ideas along with church thinking with scientific observations, experiments, and logic. Multiple advancements in science lead to people realizing that science can be used to learn more about nature and the universe. Study, reasoning, and scientific discoveries began to take the place of past ideas and religion as the way of attaining and understanding of our universe. With the shift from religious to scientific explanations, came the emerge of philosophers and other Christians trying to convert rationalists and empiricists to Christianity. Philosopher Spinoza and French scientist Pascal, both expressed in their writings that the way the universe functioned revolved around God and his laws. Pantheism and the idea that we are all connected to God, all contributed to the effort of re-conversion to Christianity. The impact of the Scientific Revolution on society and religion held great importance because it changed the views and significance of humans in the universe. Did scientific advances help or hurt women’s rights? Scientific advances further abolished women’s rights by proving male dominance and using biological difference as a weakness. Males viewed women as sexually unstable, easily swayed, prone to bad behavior beings that needed to be controlled. Science was used to prove inferiority by showing that a women’s body was made to give birth and had smaller skulls, which meant that they had smaller brains, making men superior. Women were excluded from universities and other science societies making it difficult for them to receive an education. Women began to argue that they were self-sufficient and if they were granted with education, they would be able to be seen as equals to, and even surpass, men in society. Because they believed they were equally rational, learned, or educated, women strived to overcome their “ natural” state and become more like men. The Scientific Revolution reiterated the traditional role of women in society causing them to be inferior to men and leaving them with no way to challenge scientific facts. What was “ new” and what was not new about the seventeenth century’s “ New Heaven and New Earth”? Introduction The old belief was the geocentric conception of the Ptolemaic universe. The church belief that God made the earth special for mankind; different physical laws for earth and outer space. Shift from geocentric to Copernicus’ heliocentric conception; challenges role of humans and God in the universe. Thesis: The new ideas of the “ New Heaven” and “ New Earth” disproved the old ideas of a perfectly circular geocentric universe by proposing the new scientific discoveries of gravity, inertia, motion, and an imperfect, elliptical, heliocentric universe. Kepler Published three laws of planetary motion that disproves the Ptolemaic system; allows people to think in new ways. First law of motion: Orbits are elliptical, not circular like Ptolemy and Aristotle proposed. Second law of motion: planets move and spin on axis faster when closer to the sun vs. further away. Third law of motion: the time a planet takes to orbit the sun varies based on distance from the sun. Galileo Created the first spyglass, (telescope) allowed him to make many astronomic discoveries. Used controlled experiments to come up with laws of motion and inertia expressed through math formulas. Heavenly bodies are not perfect; craters, sunspots, extra moons (Starry Messenger). Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany; addresses conflicts between bible and heliocentric theory. Newton Medieval picture of the universe is replaced by the idea that it is infinite and governed by universal laws. God has the wisdom and skill of a powerful ever-living agent; universe is a uniform machine operating in absolute time, space & motion. Wrote Principia, combined laws of planetary motion (Kepler), laws of inertia (Galileo), and own ideas of gravitation. Disproves Aristotle’s idea that two different laws govern the earth and heaven. Conclusion All old and religious beliefs are challenged by new scientific discoveries. Science became a threat to Christianity; scientists had to move toward Protestant countries. Arguments of the bible being interpreted with scientific knowledge and not literally. Assess the impact of the Scientific Revolution on religion and philosophy in the period 1550 to 1750. The Scientific Revolution impacted religion and philosophy during the time period 1550 to 1750 through the efforts and beliefs of Rene Descartes. Descartes, a French noble with a Jesuit education, erased his mind from all past religious ideas and theories to prove everything purely with science and with no religious influence. He only accepted philosophies based on reason and rejected any religious belief that did not have a logical explanation. This disregarded and religious impact on philosophy. Descartes also supported rationalism and deductive reasoning which promoted logic and thinking as the main source of knowledge over religion and past beliefs. Societies views on religion and philosophy were greatly changed by the theories and proposals made by Descartes that offered a new role of humankind leading to a new modernized function of earth and the universe. Essays: Choose one of the following questions to write a formal essay outline including: a thesis statement, topic sentences, supporting evidence, and concluding statement. Write a paragraph response for the other three. You can draft an outline response of all four, if you’d like. To what degree did eighteenth-century Prussia, Austria, and Russia exhibit the characteristics of enlightened absolutism? Introduction Having an absolute ruler with enlightened principles would be the best way to reform and benefit society. All people have natural rights that cannot be changed of tampered with; also protected by enlightened ruler. Rulers should support equality under law and promote the arts, sciences and education. Thesis: Enlightened despotism was evident in Austria, through the efforts of Joseph II, but less so in Prussia and Russia where monarchs put their political concerns first. Austria War of Austrian Succession allowed Maria Theresa to become the ruler of Austria through the Pragmatic Sanction. Maria Theresa tries to consolidate power; not enlightened but teaches her son, Joseph II, to be. Joseph II abolishes serfdom and has equality before law and religious toleration. Had all enlightened ideals but not supported by nobles so ideas were not put into action. Prussia Fredrick William I consolidates power through a civil bureaucracy and built a strong military Allowed middle classmen to hold government positions but peasants still gained no advantage. Made the General Dictionary that directed central government and controlled military, police, economic and financial affairs. Fredrick II the Great was semi-enlightened because loved war and supported nobles but also religious toleration and limited freedom of speech/press. Russia Catherine the Great wants to be enlightened but says it will ruin her empire and turn it bad. Strengthened the positions of nobles and was pro-serfdom; always favored the nobles. Charter of Nobility said that nobles could have self-rule if Catherine gained a greater power over Russia. Peasants had very poor conditions so held revolts; one led by Emelyan Pugachev’s revolt also called Cossack revolts. Conclusion Joseph II really was enlightened but nobles did not support him so Austria never became and enlightened country. Fredrick II was semi-enlightened because had enlightened ideas but loved war and used military too much. Catherine the Great thought of being enlightened but nobles convinced her it would turn the empire bad. Showing that enlightened despotism was most evident in Austria only because Joseph II was truly enlightened. Examine the causes of the economic expansion in the 18th century. Economic expansion in the 18th century was best characterized through the causes and establishment of global economy. During this time period, many merchants and other people began taking an interest in other countries. This brought an increase in world trade with Africa and the New World. The mercantilists interest in outside economy lead to and increase in global trade. European economy was affected by this growth in trade because it was evident in many appearing towns and cities. This also led to the development of port cities brought a growth of industry. Another indirect influence of economic expansion was the mass production of textiles, sugar, tobacco, and growing numbers of workers. The establishment of global economy greatly illustrated economic expansion because it largely transformed mercantilism in many towns and cities. Given the numerous social and economic changes of the eighteenth century, those at the bottom of society often found themselves worse off than in earlier centuries. Explain why this is true. The numerous social and economic changes of the 18th century, such as new enclosure acts and the appearance of more taxes, led to people in the bottom of society to be in worse conditions than before. When serfdom was abolished, it became harder for peasants to find work. Most had family farms but there certain passed laws caused them to be insufficient and unable to support the average family. The enclosure acts allowed rich landowners to fence off pieces of land, combining smaller farms into one large farm. This took a great amount of land away from the peasants. To make it impossible for peasants to buy back their land, the government placed taxes on land called tithes. These tithes called for peasants to owe 1/3 of their crops to the local priests. However, this tax went to the rich landowners instead. With such a high tax on very little production, the peasants had no hope of buying the land that they lost. These social and economic changes, while meant to “ benefit” society, only made it more difficult for peasants to make a living. How did the concepts of “ balance of power” and “ reason of state” influence international relations in the eighteenth century? The concepts of “ balance of power” and “ reason of state” influenced international relations in the 18th century which can be illustrated by the partition of Poland and the desire to gain more land. The balance of power was meant to create an equal status between each country and state. This meant that not one country could be more powerful than another. The partition of Poland into three equal parts between Austria, Russia, and Prussia showed an example of how power was divided between countries. The reason of state advocated leaders trying to develop a long-term future for their states instead of gaining more power for themselves. Increasing the power of the state brought the want to gain more land. This brought the appearance of more wars between countries. These two concepts, not meant to bring peace, correlated with each other causing and upbringing of new international relations. Chapter 21 Essays: Answer the following in paragraph fashion: What did the Congress of Vienna hope to accomplish and how well did it achieve its goals? What were the chief ideas associated with the ideology of conservatism and how were these put into practice from 1815-1830? Why were the ideologies of liberalism, nationalism and socialism considered revolutionary? What caused the Revolutions of 1848 and were they successful? Chapter 22 Essays: Essays: Assess the accomplishments and failures of Louis Napoleon’s regime in terms of the impact his policies had on France. What role did war and diplomacy play in the unification movements of Italy and Germany? What were the chief ideas of Marxism? How did the expansion of scientific knowledge affect the Western world view and the everyday lives of Europeans during the mid-nineteenth century? Chapter 23 Essays: To what extent did the emergence and development of socialist parties and trade unions meet the needs of the working classes between 1871 and the end of the century? Why do historians focus so much attention on the middle class during the period between 1870-1894? Had the roles of women changed during he second half of the nineteenth century? How were the promises of a new mass society reflected in education and leisure? Chapter 24 Essays: What developments in science, intellectual affairs, and the arts of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries “ opened the way to a modern consciousness, ” and how did the consciousness differ from earlier worldviews? What gains did women make in their movement toward equal rights? What were the causes of the new imperialism that took place after 1880, and what effects did European imperialism have on Africa and Asia? Chapter 25 Essays: Discuss the causes of World War I: What were the major long-term causes of the war? How important were the decisions made in the summer of 1914 in causing the war? How did wartime governments maintain public order and mobilize public opinion during the course of the war? What caused the Russian Revolution? How did the Bolsheviks secure their power? Can the Treaty of Versailles be viewed as a successful settlement of the war? Chapter 12: The Age of the Renaissance Italian Renaissance: Definition: The “ rebirth” of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization (1350 to 1550). It was a distinct period in Europe that began in Florence, Italy and spread to the rest of Europe. It was a smooth transition from the Middle Ages (that lasted 1000 years), yet there was still and economic, political, and social life. Italy was an urban society but became a land of independent cities that dominated country districts. City-states became the center of Italian political, economic, and social life, increasing secularism and the desire of worldly possessions. Characteristics: It was the renewal of interest and the beginning of geographical (New World) and intellectual discoveries. People of the Renaissance thought they were the beginning of the modern age and separated themselves from the Medieval Ages. However, the Middle Ages was still apart of the Renaissance, many political changes took place, humanism displayed brilliant ideas, literary interests grew, and there was a huge religious movement that affected the world, called the Reformation. The Renaissance was also a recovery from the tragic and shameful Middle Ages that nearly destroyed Europe. Lastly, it emphasized individualism and self-awareness. Jacob Burckhardt: Famous: A Swiss historian and art critic who created the modern concept of the Renaissance in his book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy in 1860. He said that Italy was the birthplace of the revival of antiquity and secularism. Burckhardt exaggerated that the Renaissance was secular and individualized, but it was based on religious opinions. Importance: He created the modern concept of the Renaissance and what life was about back then. He sparked debate about what the Renaissance was truly about and he established the modern framework for all modern interpretations of the period. Leon Battisti Alberti: Famous: A Florentine architect that emphasized individuality and the willingness to strive. Important: This created a new social ideal of the well-rounded person who could achieve in all areas of life. People gained self-respect and realized their potential, which they used to develop as a person for the best. Making of Renaissance Society: Definition: The economy finally recovered from the social upheavals in the 14th century, due to the increase in manufacturing and trade. Importance: Europe improved after the terrible Middle Ages epidemic, through economic recovery, the expansion of trade, luxury industries were developed, and Banks grew with the Medici’s. Hanseatic League of Merchants: Definition: In the 13th century, coastal North German towns made a commercial and military group called the Hansa (aka Hansieatic League of Merchants). In the 1500s there were 80 cities from the League that established settlements and profitable bases in England and northern Europe (Denmark, Norway, & Sweden). In the North they traded timber, fish, grain, metals, honey, and wines, while in the South (Flanders, a port city of Bruges) was the meeting place and economic crossroad. But the League ended with the developing of large territorial states. Importance: This commercial and military group from North Germany expanded into 80 cities that established settlements and profitable ports in Northern Europe. North was for trade, while South was an economic crossroad. However, Hansa was replaced by big regional states. House of Medici: 1. Commerce: They controlled industrial projects for wool, silk, and the mining of alum for dyeing textiles. 2. Real Estate: They owned bank branches in Venice, Milan, Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons. In 1494, the French banned them from Florence and took all of their property. 3. Banking: It was the greatest bank in Europe, with branches in Venice, Milan, Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons. They were also the principal bankers for the papacy, where they gained big profits and influence in the papal court. But the Medici bank declined due to bad loans (uncollectible loans to rulers) and poor leadership. Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier: Definition: In 1528, the Italian Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529), published The Book of the Courtier. It became a popular handbook for European aristocrats. He described The 3 tributes of the perfect lord/lady– Nobles should possess fundamental native traits (character, grace, talents, and noble birth) Develop certain achievements; be in the military and exercise, have a classical education, play an instrument/draw/paint, and have a well-developed personality. Act accordingly; make a good impression while being modest and graceful. Importance: It was the ideals that were expected of an aristocrat. A perfect noble was to serve his prince in an honest and effective way. Nobles dominated European life socially and politically. Italian States in the Renaissance: Importance: Italy was a land of 5 major states and many independent city-states. Increased success and a supportive intellectual area, allowed middle and upper classes to rediscover Greco-Roman Culture. Also, modern diplomacy came out of Renaissance Italy. Condottiere: Definition: When city-states relied on mercenary soldiers, it was the leaders who sold these services of their bands to the highest bidder. Importance: These sold mercenaries wrecked havoc and caused larger, regional states to continue to grow while the small ones shrunk. So, the dictatorial Milan and the republic Florence and Venice dominated Italy in the late 1300s. Cosimo d’Medici of Florence: (1434-1464) Definition: He contributed lots of $$ to the rebuilding of the Church of San Lorenzo. Also, he funded a translation of Plato’s dialogues by Marsilio Ficino, one of the Florentine Platonic Academy leaders. He took control of the Florentine oligarchy and tried to keep it a republic government for the state, but he ran the government in secret. He funded and chose his political allies wisely in order to dominate the city when Florence was the center of the cultural Renaissance. Importance: While Cosimo was running covert operations for the government, he dominated Florence to be the center of the cultural Renaissance. Girolamo Savonarola: (1452-1498) Famous: A monk who preached to large crowds on how the world was corrupt and how the popes were misleading. He promised a splendid future once Florence was purified. As the Medici were exiled, Savonarola ruled by a theocracy. His pros were cutting taxes, giving citizens power, and reducing crime. However, he banned swearing, gambling, and slutty clothes and enforced this through vice squads of street peasants. He burned vain belongings but was tortured and killed in 1498. He had paused the Renaissance for 4 years and it never was the same. Italian States: 1. Milan (the Duchy of Milan)-After the Visconti ruler died in 1447, Francesco Sforza, a condottieri, turned on his Milanese employers, conquered the city, and became its duke. The Visconti and Sforza have created a centralized territorial state, through taxation that increased government income. 2. Venice (the Republic of Venice)-A seafaring republic remained a stable political and independent state governed by an oligarchy of merchant-aristocrats. The commerce based empire brought income that caused it to be viewed as an international power. By the end of the 1300s, Venice tried to protect trade routes and food, but their mainland expansion seemed to pose a threat to Milan and Florence. 3. Florence (the Republic of Florence)-In the 1400s in the area of Tuscany, a small merchant oligarchy twisted the republican government. So in 1434 Cosimo de’Medici took control and “ kept the government republican”. He used favoritism and carefully selected political allies and his grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent (1469-1492), dominated the city when Florence was the center of the cultural Renaissance. 4. Papal States-In central Italy, where the popes normally politically controlled the land, the Great Schism allowed territories to become independent of papal authority. The popes of the 1400s tried to reestablish their control of the Papal States. 5. Naples (Kingdom of Naples)-In southern Italy and Sicily, where the French and Aragonese fought for domination. Naples was a backward monarchy with a population of many poverty-stricken peasants who were ruled by nobles. It was uninfluenced by the Renaissance. Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino and Isabella d’Este: (+Christine de Pizan in Ch. 11) Famous: He was provided a classical education from the famous humanist school in Mantua (run by Vittorino da Feltre). He also knew how to fight due to his family’s compensation for the poor. He was an unusual condottiere and wasn’t the smartest, but he was reliable and trustworthy. He was one of the greatest patrons of Renaissance culture. He was so well liked that he could walk the streets of Urbino and not be harmed. Importance: His ruling from 1444-1482 allowed him to create Urbino into a cultural and intellectual center. He was a despot but he was still warm-hearted to the citizens, which allowed him to be one of the most liked rulers at this time. Peace of Lodi: (1454) Definition: Italy’s broken up states allowed the concept of balancing power to prevent one state gaining more power while taking away another’s. In 1454, the treaty signed by Italian states ended a 50 year war and ended with 40 years of peace. It was Milan, Florence, and Naples vs. Venice and the papacy for balance of power. But it failed to make lasting cooperation and a common foreign policy. Importance: Italy created the political practice of balancing power, but it failed because the powers couldn’t cooperate and make a shared foreign policy. French-Spanish Wars: (1527) Definition: Italy was a battlefield the Spanish and French monarchies because of the bad balancing of power and it encouraged invasions. So the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, allowed the French King Charles VIII to enter Italian politics. Charles with 30, 000 men took Naples and Italy asked Spain for help. Ferdinand of Aragon agreed and Spain and France fought to control Italy. In 1510, Francis I of France and Charles I of Spain fought during the Valois and Habsburg dynasties. Importance: Italy was vulnerable after the Peace of Lodi ended, and Spain and France fought in Italy in an attempt to control it. Sack of Rome: Definition: In 1527 Rome was sacked by Spanish King Charles I, which temporarily ended the wars and gave Spain power of Italy. Importance: Spain controlled Italy after they took Rome. Some Italians though that they were different from foreigners, while some thought they should unite their states to fight foreigners. They didn’t unify nor invade until 1870. Ambassadors: Definition: He is the servant of all Christendom= Middle Ages. There were so many little states that each one began to send agents to other states to find out key info= Renaissance. Ambassadors spread through Europe during the Italian wars (1500s-1600s). It changed to the idea of them being an agent of the territorial state that sent him, not Christendom, and he could use any method that worked. Importance: The modern diplomatic system is from the Renaissance, when an “ agent is sent to another state/country, and they find important info”. The interests of the states are more important than anything else. Niccolo Machiavelli’s “ The Prince”: Famous: He was a secretary to the Florentine Council of Ten but when Spain won the war and the Medici’s came back into power, he was tortured and exiled. He wrote “ The Prince” because his obsession with Italy’s political problems and his knowledge of Rome. He thought a prince should be self-centered, be feared not loved, have no guilt, it’s acceptable to do bad things for a good reason, and men are immoral. Importance: Machiavelli was the first to abandon the difference between right and wrong in order to analyze political activity. Cesare Borgia: Famous: The Italian ruler and son of Pope Alexander VI used ruthless ways to carve out a new state in central Italy. Definition: He is what Machiavelli used as an example of “ The Prince”. Erasmus’s “ Education of a Christian Prince”: Definition: He was a man who spoke classic Latin, traveled Europe, and spread word of his reform. He wanted to gain inner faith and rid of worldly possessions, sacraments, and pilgrimages (all external forms of religion). He edited the Greek New Testament and made a Latin version too. The Reformation over rid his restoration of the Church. He disagreed with Luther and Protestants because they wanted to destroy the medieval Christianity, but Erasmus wanted to restore it. Importance: Most influential of the northern Renaissance humanists. He wanted to restore Christianity to the early teachings of Jesus. He wanted to reform the Christian church to being a way of life, not dictatorial. The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy: Humanism: Definition: An intellectual movement based on Greco-Roman culture. Humanists studied liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy or ethics, and history) = humanities. Devotion was shown through your job, whether a teacher, professor, or secretary of the heads of Italian city-states or princes/popes courts. Largely secular as opposed to clergymen. Importance: Most important literary movement in Renaissance. Francesco Petrarch: Famous: He was the first to call the Medieval Ages a dark time that didn’t have classical antiquity. He lived with princes in Italy and was conceded. He found forgotten Latin manuscripts and read secular readings. But sometimes he thought he was unreligious, yet moved onto making classic Latin fashionable and elite. Importance: Father of the Italian Renaissance humanism. Civic Humanism (with Florence): Definition: Humanism took a new direction in 1400s when it became close to Florentine town pride. An intellectual movement of the Italian Renaissance that saw Cicero, who was an intellectual and a statesman, as the inspiration and said that humanists should be involved in government and use their persuasive training in the service of the state. Importance: Different type of humanism that was state/government related instead of individualism. Lorenzo Valla: Famous: Born in Rome, he was educated in Latin and Greek and became a papal secretary. He tried to purify Medieval Latin and restore Latin to its vernacular (common language), making a new literary standard. He identified stages of Latin but only accepted the last century of the Roman Republic Latin. Leonardo Bruni: Famous: A humanist, Florentine patriot, and legal official of Florence. Wrote a biography on Cicero called “ The New Cicero”, about how blended politics with literary creation. He was the first Italian humanist to understand Greek Cicero: Famous: The classical Roman Cicero that was a statesman and intellectual became the model of civic humanism. He was the inspiration for people to live for their state; he thought that you were supposed to better yourself for your city-state. Pico de Mirandola: Famous: He and Marsilio Ficino were magi and he wrote “ Oration on the Dignity of Man”. He thought humans had unlimited potential they had to work for. He accepted Hermetic philosophy= religion is part of nature, due to alchemy, magic, and philosophy. Education in the Renaissance: Vittorino da Feltre (Mantua): Famous: He founded the Mantua school in 1423 that was aided by the ruler Gian Francesco I Gonzanga for his children. He based his educational system on classical authors’ ideas (Cicero and Quintilian). Children were taught liberal studies and P. E. (javelin throwing, archery, dancing, running, wrestling, hunting, and swimming) for a sound mind in a sound body. School was for elite males and few poor/women. “ Liberal Studies”: Definition: History, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, math, astronomy, and music. Importance: To make individuals who were virtuous and wise and could persuade others to follow them. Pietro Vergerio and “ Concerning Character”: Famous: His work stressed the importance of the liberal arts as the key to freedom and allowing individuals to reach their potential. Purpose of Liberal Arts: Definition: The key to freedom and to create complete citizens that could participate in the civic life of their communities. Purpose of Humanist Education: Definition: Combined the classics with Christianity and elite males (few poor/women) were educated on multiple humanities that would aid them reach their own potential. Francesco Guicciardini: Famous: Called the greatest historian between Tacitus (1st century) and Voltaire and Gibbon (18th century). He wrote “ History of Italy” and “ History of Florence” and wanted to teach lessons by emphasizing political and military history that relied on personal example and documents. Johannes Gutenburg: Famous: From Mainz, he printed the first true book in the West through movable type, “ Gutenburg’s Bible”. Printing Press: Importance: The most important technological inventions of Western civilization. Now you could print many words with the moving metal type. It spread quickly throughout Europe, and many religious, classics, medieval grammars, philosophy, and romances were printed. Printing was one of the largest industries in Europe and it motivated scholarly research and wanting to learn. It also caused a wider audience (this helped spread the Reformation). The Artistic Renaissance: Masaccio: Famous: From Florence, he made frescoes in the Branacci Chapel that was the first masterpiece of Early Renaissance art. He painted large figures, proportion between people and place, and the laws of perspective, he created a realistic style of painting. “ Tribute Money”= Jesus and council telling Peter to get a coin from a fish’s mouth. Sandro Bottecelli: Famous: Funded by Lorenzo the Magnificent, he took interest in Greek and Roman mythology, such as in “ Primavera”. The figures are detailed and contain an out of this world quality, not from the Early Renaissance art. Donato Donatello: Famous: Sculpture and architecture were advanced too; Donatello spent time in Rome studying/copying Greco-Roman statues and created his own work. Such as “ David”= the first known, life-size male nude since antiquity. It still contains a religious theme (Goliath) but it also glorifies the human body. Filippo Brunelleschi: Famous: Donatello’s friend, also studied Roman antiquity architecture and was assigned to finish the cathedral “ the Duomo’s” roof and he created the brilliant engineering ideas to create a domed roof. Also, he did the Church of San Lorenzo for the Medicis that were not divine but proportionate and appropriate for humans, with classical columns, rounded arches, and coffered ceilings. The High Renaissance: Definition: From 1480 to 1520, while Rome was the new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance, da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo dominated this era. It was about the individualistic forms of creative expression. Leonardo da Vinci: Famous: From 1452 to 1519, he was the shift from Early Renaissance to High Renaissance. He studied everything and dissected human bodies just to understand nature. He wanted to go past realism and to spread the idea of realistic portrayal to an ideal form. Da Vinci painted the “ Last Supper” where he wanted to show a person’s character and inner nature by gestures and movement in this fresco. Raphael: Famous: He lived from 1483 to 1520, and at 25 years old he was already one of Italy’s best painters. He was known for his madonnas that highlighted great beauty. Also, he is famous for his frescoes in the Vatican Palace and the “ School of Athens”. That was about balance, harmony, and order-mainly what antiquity art was about. Michelangelo: Famous: From 1475 to 1564, he was a painter, architect, and sculptor and was influenced by Neo-Platonism. He painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and showed the glory of the human body and how we are similar to God. Also, his “ David”, was a 14-foot high statue made from marble that glorified the human body and human power. It was a symbol of the Renaissance. The Northern Renaissance: Definition: The Northerners were focused on detail as opposed to proportion, so they highlighted books and panel paintings for altars. Jan van Eyck: Famous: Was the first to use oil paint that allowed him to use multiple colors and make fine details. In his “ Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride” he painted stunning details, but his perspective was off. This is to be said about all northern painters and their talents. Also, they focus on emotional intensity of religious feelings too. Albrecht Durer: Famous: He lived from 1471 to 1528 in Nuremberg and was greatly influenced by the Italians perspective. In his “ Adoration of the Magi” he tied in perspective and proportion with detail in a harmonious way, to show the standard of ideal beauty by carefully studying the human form. Guillaume Dufay: Famous: He was attracted by the dukes of Burgundy and was probably the most important composer in his era. From northern France from 1400 to 1474, he studied in Italy, so for his pieces he tied in Medieval music and with Renaissance’s style. He used the secular tunes to replace the Gregorian Chants in Mass. The main secular music that showed it was not only about god was called madrigal. The European State in the Renaissance: “ New Monarchies”: Importance: In the 1450s people tried to reestablish the central power of the monarchies, especially in France, England, and Spain. The western monarchs were successful while the central and eastern had limited power and could not gain any authority. Taille: Definition: Made by the Estates-General for the French King Charles VII, it was an annual direct tax on any land or property. If you lost control of the money then the parliament’s power lessened. King Louis XI: Famous: The making of a French territorial state was possible by the devious “ Spider”. The taille allowed him to gain income, but the independent nobles were a threat. Louis then took control of Burgundy, Anjou, Maine, Bar, and Provence and set up a base for a strong French Monarchy. The War of the Roses: Importance: In the 1450s, a war broke out between the duke of Lancaster (red rose) against the ducal of York (white rose). Finally in 1485, Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond, defeated the last York king and established the Tudor dynasty. Henry VII: Famous: The first Tudor king tried to end internal arguments, banned nobles from having armies, and the Court of the Star Chamber which allowed his nobles to arrest and kill anyone without a reason or evidence. He gained income from judicial fees and by avoiding wars and loans from the Parliament. With his gained respect from the citizens, he created a successful government that illuminated monarchies. Isabella and Ferdinand: Famous: The Iberian kingdoms (Portugal, Navarre, Aragon, Castile, and Granada-Muslims) were united when they married and they got a professional army, control of the Catholic Church and their own parliaments and customs. The Inquisition: Definition: Ferdinand and Isabella wanted religious uniformity so they persecuted all the Muslims and Jews. Most Jews transferred to Christianity, but doubting if they were true Christians, they had the Pope make the Inquisition in 1487 under royal control to verify the beliefs of some people. The Habsburgs: Famous: After 1438 the Holy Roman Empire was still under the Habsburgs control, because they were successful through dynastic marriages. Ottoman Turks: Famous: The Byzantine Empire was a buffer between the Muslim Middle East and the Latin West but the Constantinople Sack in 1204 made it hard to come back into power. So the Turks took control quickly of the Asia Minor, Byzantine Empire, Seljuk Turks, Balkans, Serbians, Bosnia, and Albania. They moved towards Europe and made an enemy. Constantinople: (1453) Importance: There was a sack of Constantinople in 1204 and the Byzantine Empire was never put back together because of the Turks. John Wyclif: Famous: An Oxford theologian who hated clerical corruption, led an attack on papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs. He wanted the popes to be rid of and the Bible translated for all to read. His followers were called Lollards. Jon Hus: Famous: Leader of Czech reformers, a chancellor at the university of Prague, he wanted to eliminate worldliness and corruption of the clergy and attacked the power of the papacy within the church. He was allowed to have a court hearing but instead was arrested and condemned and burned. Pope Pius II: Famous: He issued the papal bull Execrabilis to condemn appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical. The Renaissance Papacy: Nepotism: Definition: Since Popes can’t have kids, they use they’re nephews to carry on the trend. Corruption: Definition: Dishonesty, immoral, crime, etc. Ch. 13 ID Notes: Christian (northern) Humanists: major goal was reform Christianity. Focused on early Christianity, discovered simple religion. Had a reform program. Believed through education in classical, especially Christian, antiquity, they could reform Church and society. Believed in education, supported schools. Desiderius Erasmus: Most influential Christian humanist. Born in Holland and educated. Said Christianity should be the philosophy leading daily life. Emphasized inner piety and de-emphasized external forms of religion. He wanted to return to the simplicity of the early Church. Published Greek and a new Latin version of the Bible. Prepare the way for the Reformation. “ Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched. ” The Praise of Folly: Erasmus’s humorous yet effective criticism of corrupt practices in society specifically, the clergy. Thomas More: Son of a lawyer, had a good education. Interested in both Latin and Greek. He became lord chancellor of England. Good friends with Erasmus, and a devout Christian. Willingly gave up his life opposing England’s break with the Roman Catholic Church. Utopia: Book written in 1516 by Thomas More. His account of the idealistic life and institutions of a community. (Utopia is Greek for “ nowhere”) He presented a new social system in which cooperation and reason replaced power and fame as the proper motivating agents for human society. Communal ownership vs. private property, and people worked 9 hrs a day. Pluralism: the practice of holding several church offices simultaneously. This led to officeholders ignoring their duties and hiring unqualified underlings. This was another factor that spurred people to reform the Church. Martin Luther: Deeply religious man, who split the Church, destroying religious unity of western Christendom. Mastered the liberal arts, then studied law. He than entered the monastic order of the Augustinian Hermits in Erfurt. The major focus was assurance of salvation. Confession: gave the opportunity to have one’s sins forgiven. A Catholic’s chief means of receiving God’s grace. Luther confessed for hours, but was always doubtful. Justification: the act by which a person is made deserving of salvation. Justification by faith in the Bible as the sole authority in religious affairs were the twin pillars of the Protestant Reformation. indulgences: Luther’s involvement in the indulgence controversy propelled him to open confrontation with church officials. The Church was selling indulgences, which greatly distressed Luther. He believed that those who relied on the pieces of paper to assure salvation were guaranteeing eternal damnation instead. the 95 Theses: Luther issued them after the sale of indulgences. Written in Latin, but translated to German. Thousands of copies were printed and dissatisfaction with the church grew. Beginning of Reformation. the Edict of Worms: Luther was made an outlaw within the empire. Emperor Charles V was outraged at Luther and wanted him to give in, but he refused. Luther was to be captured ad delivered to the emperor, but instead he went into hiding for nearly a year. the Peasant War: In the mid 1520s, the peasants were fed up with social inequality and decided to rebel. The looked to Martin Luther for support. Luther did not support their efforts, instead he supported the rulers. Luther was dependant on state authorities for growth and maintenance on his reformed church. the Peace of Augsburg: Peace in Holy Roman Empire. Agree to split up land between Lutheran and Catholics. Charles V makes peace with the Schmalkaldic League. Augsburg Confession accepted. Charles V: ruled immense empire. Politically, he wanted to maintain his dynasty’s control over his enormous empire. Religiously, he wanted to preserve the unity of the Christian faith in his empire. ‘ he had many problems and was very distracted. This helped Luther’s movement grow. Transubstantiation: doctrine of Roman Catholic Church that communion of bread and wine is miraculously changed into the body and blood in Jesus. Consubstantiation: the bread and wine are not actually the body and blood, but spiritually are Jesus. This was a belief of Lutherans. Ulrich Zwingli: Lived in Switzerland. Well educated, strongly influenced by Christian humanism. Became a cathedral priest in the Great Minster of Zurich. Through his preaching there, he began the Reformation in Switzerland. Led to a public disputation or debate in the town hall. the Lord’s Supper: caused disagreement between Swiss and German leaders at the conference at Marburg. Zwingli believed that it was symbolic, not literal. It was inlay a meal of remembrance. Luther insisted that there was a real presence of Jesus. Munster: in Germany near the Dutch border. It was under control of the Anabaptists for a period of time in the 1530s. It was a haven for Anabaptists and they thought it was going to be New Jerusalem. A group of Catholics and Lutherans banned together and took control of the city. Anabaptists: Anabaptists came from lower class peasants that were not doing do well economically. They believed that the true Christina Church was a voluntary association of believers who had undergone spiritual rebirth and had been baptized into the church again as adults. All believers were considered equal. Believed in complete separation of church and state. Not well liked by other members of society. King Henry VIII: Initiated the English Reformation. He wanted to divorce his wife, and the pope would not let him. His new advisor became Thomas Cranmer, who became the archbishop of Canterbury. He was a secret Protestant. He convinced King Henry to obtain and annulment of the marriage and essentially abolish papal authority in England. Act of Supremacy: Passed by Parliament in 1534. It completed the break of the Catholic Church. The English monarch now controlled the church in all matters of doctrine, clergy appointments, and discipline. Queen Mary: A Catholic who intended to restore England to the Roman Catholic fold. She faced a lot of opposition. She married Philip II, son of Charles V and future king of Spain. She was not very successful and did not achieve what she intended. England became more Protestant during her reign. John Calvin/Calvinism: Calvin was a second generation of protestant reformers. Influenced by Luther. Born in France, then went to Switzerland. Institutes of Christian Religion. He was very convince by the inner guidance of God. Justification by faith alone was how to achieve salvation. Predestination Predestination: Calvinist belief that God had predestined for some to be saved (the elect) and others to be damned (the reprobate). Things that might indicate salvation: open profession of faith, a “ decent and godly life, ” and participation in the sacraments of baptism and communion. Women: A wife was expected to be obedient to her husband. Her other important duty was to bear children. To Protestants, this was a very important concept in the divine plan. Being part of a family was really a women’s only option for a life. Marriage: Marriage was encouraged and family life became much more important. Celibacy was no longer a holy thing. Family was the center of human life and there was a new stress on mutual love between a man and a woman. Education: set up schools for a wide audience. The Protestants needed to create a population of believers that could read the Bible. They combined humanist ideas of liberal arts and Greek and Latin with religious instruction. Schools were paid for by the public. Popular Culture: saints were eliminated, which ended many religious holy days and changed a community’s sense of time. They were replaced with individual private prayer, family worship, and collective prayer and worship at the same time each week on Sunday. Protestant Reformers tried to eliminate customary forms of entertainment such as drinking in taverns, dramatic performances, and dancing, and giving presents to children on holy days. However, taverns were an important part of social life and could not be eliminated. Jesuits: the society of Jesus. Became chief instrument of Catholic Reformation. Founded by Spanish Ignatius of Loyola. Had principles of obedience to the papacy, strict hierarchy, use of education to achieve goals, and a dedication to engage in a “ conflict for God. ” They established highly disciplined schools. They went to Asia to convert them to Christianity. They fought Protestantism and won back Poland. St. Ignatius: Founded the society of Jesus, or the Jesuits. Had a military career, but was injured. He decided to submit his will to the will of the church. He wrote The Spiritual Exercises. Gathered a small group of followers and formed the Jesuits. The Council of Trent: Pope Paul III called it to resolve religious differences caused by the Protestant revolution. Met in three major sessions between 1545 and 1563. Catholics hoped to compromise and for the Protestants to return to the church, the final doctrine degrees of the councils reaffirmed traditional Catholic beliefs in opposition to Protestant beliefs. Only the Church could interpret scripture, both faith and good works were necessary for salvation. Seven sacraments, transubstantiation, clergical celibacy. Huguenots: Calvinists from France. About 50 percent of nobility was Huguenot. About 10 percent of the total population was Huguenot. ultra-Catholics: extreme Catholic party. Was very opposed to the Huguenots and led by the Guise family. They were unwilling to make compromises. Had lots of powers and were able to fund armies and were aligned with the Jesuits. French Wars of Religion: Catholics vs. Huguenots. What’s more important, politics or religion? Catherine de’ Medici became in charge of France. Wanted to diffuse tension and marry her daughter, sister of the king, to Henry of Navarre, who was Protestant. St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, Calvinists killed at the wedding. War of three henrys. Henry duke of Guise vs. King Henry III and Henry of Navarre. Edict of Nantes: acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guaranteed the Huguenots the right to worship in selected places in every district and fortify towns for their protection. Recognized political rights of the minority Protestant group and created the concept of religious tolerance. Out of political necessity. Philip II: He was a Catholic King. His was to make Spain a world power. Expanded power over nobility and bankrupted the nation. Battle of Lepanto 1571- defeated the Ottomans(Muslim). Biggest enemy was England b/c they were Protestant. Union of Utrecht: 7 northern Dutch speaking states that were organized by William of Orange to oppose the Spanish. Divided the Netherlands religiously. They were Protestant. The southern provinces remained Catholic and with Spain. Queen Elizabeth: Queen of England, leader of a very powerful Protestant nation. Religious policy was based on moderation and compromise. Puritans: English Calvinists. Wanted to remove any trace of Catholicism from the Church of England. the Spanish Armada: Fleet of Spanish ships that intended to take over Queen Elizabeth of England but it was destroyed in a storm. Chapter 14 ID Notes: New World Expansion, Europe and the New World Motives for Expansion: “ God (religious), Glory (power), and Gold (economics)” God: religious movement inspired by Juniperro Serra, spread of Christianity. A way to spread Catholicism over Protestantism. Prince Henry the Navigator and Hernán Cortes started with religious motives. Glory: desire to create more powerful nation states. **fame, glory and curiosity that inspired exploration. To discover and claim Christian Kingdoms. Being granted eternal praise and power above others. Gold: Inspired by Marco Polo of the 13th c. and newly blocked trade routes. Explorers sought new ways to Asia, spice trade, gold, and precious commodities. **everyone wants to be rich! Basic Explorers: Portuguese empire- Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartholomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama, Alfonso Albuquerque. Spanish Empire- Christopher Columbus, Pedro Cabral, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Ferdinand Magellan. (SEE POWEPOINT SLIDES!!!) Conquistadors: Hernán Cortes takes the Aztec’s at Tenochtitlan with 550 soldiers–1519-29; Population declined from 11 million in 1519 to 6. 5 million in 1540. Francisco Pizarro easily conquered the Inca Empire in South America by 1535. Systems of Administration: Requerimiento- 1510–justified Spanish occupation of the New World. Encomienda- quasi slave system. Conquerors could force natives to work and pay taxes. Supposed protection and pay rarely happened. Religions instruction did sometimes. Bartoleme de Las Casas: does not like conquistadors; protested and abolished encomienda system and replaced it with hacienda in 1542. Middle Passage: the journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas as the middle leg of the triangular trade. 10 million slaves transported back and forth; 95% died and only 5% lived. **SMALL POX! Slave trade started many wars in Africa. Europe gets many new imports; tomatoes, potatoes, squash. Southeast Asia: Dutch supplanted Portuguese in Malacca, the Moluccas, and the rest of Indonesia; Dutch East India Co. India: Mughal Empire established. English and Dutch arrived at Portuguese. French had a limited presence. British East India Co. achieved dominance in Calcutta after the Battle of Plassey (1757)–British East India Co. could collect taxes around Calcutta, etc. Economic Revolution: Price inflation; value of money goes down while prices go up. A lot of people with money; traders and merchants are very successful, lower standard of living, from local to national (larger nation state system), new industries, mining, ship building, weaponry. Entrepreneurs: Medici’s and Jacob Fugger; invests wisely in minerals by making a deal with Charles V to mine, makes a lot of money. Joint-Stock Companies: split the profits, Netherlands (Dutch-East India stock company) **beginning of capitalism, Bank of Amsterdam-first national bank. Dutch started Capitalism. Mercantilism: finite amount of wealth; bring as much wealth to your country as possible (sell more than you buy and buy only from your own country). Trading= high taxes, favorable balance of trade (exports> imports). China and Japan: Qing Dynasty limited foreign influence–Canton from October to March only. Japan kept foreigners at bay until the 1850s. Some Catholic influence (Francis Xavier). Dutch had limited trade with Japan. **limited European influence. Chapter 15 ID Notes: Social Crisis, War, and Rebellion Witchcraft: Started during mid 1500s when another little ice age caused harvests to fail, creating famine. These problems led to social tensions and “ witches” were blamed. Trials were held in England, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany, parts of France and Low Countries, and New England. Was around for a while but was recently associated with the idea that it was sinister and dangerous when the medieval church connected them with the devil. Caused by religion (affected Protestant areas and belief in devil) and social (old women and poor were blamed). It was sexist. Ended when gov’t stabilized and people questioned old religious beliefs in 18th century. the Thirty-Years War: (1618-1648) “ last of the religious wars” started religious now political. Religious Divisions: 1608 Protestant Union vs. the Catholic League. Political Divisions: Hapsburgs wanted to regain strength at the expense of Protestant princes. Princes wary of centralization. Outside influences: Catholic France opposed a strong HRE, even though it was also Catholic (all to gain power! France restarted the war). Denmark and Sweden would support the Protestants. Background: protestant rebellion against Catholic King. First religious, w/ militant Catholicism vs. militant Calvinism, but turned secular and dynastic-nationalist. Was in Germanic lands of HRE. Maybe between Bourbon dynasty (France) and Habsburg dynasty (Spain) and HRE. **RESULT: pope gets no influence-secular! HRE has NO power b/c of independent gov’t. present day Germany gets destroyed. Results of TYW: Germany devastated–economy, farmland, population, etc. 1/3 of Germans died. Mouth of the Rhine went to the Dutch, so Germany’s economic growth is further hampered. Germany divided, thus weak. Won’t be united for two hundred years. HRE exists in name only. France emerges as the leader of the continent. Protestant Union= Calvinist, league of German Protestant states, Elector Palatine Frederick IV vs. Catholic League= German states, Duke Maximillian of Bavaria (S. Germany). Began b/c Habsburg (w/ Spain) wanted a consolidated authority in HRE but princes (w/ France and S. enemies) objected and wanted “ German liberties”, constitutional rights, and individual rulers. Bohemian Phase: (1618-1625) Noble Bohemian Estates accepted the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand as king but regretted it b/c they were Calvinist and he wanted to reinforce Catholicism and strengthen royal power. Protestant nobles rebelled by defenestrating Habsburg ambassadors in Prague–seat of Bohemian gov’t. Rebels got Bohemia and rid of Ferdinand, replacing him w/ Protestant Palatinate Elector Frederick V (Protestant Union). But Ferdinand, the HRE emperor, was put back by Catholic League. Spain got Palatinate for trade and Duke Max got the rest. Protestant land was taken and Catholicism was sole religion. The Danish Phase: (1625-1629) King Christian IV of Denmark, a Lutheran. SEE POWERPOINT NOTES!!!!! The Peace of Westphalia: Ended the TYW in Germany during the Franco-Swedish Phase after 5 years of protracted negotiations in 1648. Said all German states, even Calvinists, could choose own religion. Land divided, each HRE state was now independent b/c got own foreign policy. Habsburg emperor now a figurehead in HRE. Religion and politics separate, Pope ignored in Westphalia. 1. Hundreds of diplomats meet in Westphalia, even the Pope. 2. Pope is ignored, emphasizing the secularization of European politics/diplomacy. 3. Each of the 300 German states has right to conduct its own foreign policy–essentially independent. 4. Religion to be decided by ruler; Calvinism OK. 5. Dutch Republic’s independence and Switzerland’s neutrality accepted. 6. France and Sweden left with a little extra land. Standing armies: Made by King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus. Played offensively, w/ enlisted musketeers and pikemen. Fired guns at once, then charged with swords. Men were highly trained at military schools. Weapons more advanced and navy ships were stronger/bigger/powerful. End of undisciplined mercenary forces. Gustavus Adolphus: (1611-1632) King of Sweden. Revived Sweden and turned in into a great Baltic power. Devout Lutheran. Led army to central Germany where he fought Wallenstein (appointed by Emperor Ferdinand) in Battle of Lutzen. Swedes won but Adolphus killed. Wallenstein killed by Ferdinand. Swedes defeated by imperial army, making S. Germany Catholic. Ferdinand wanted to be friends w/ German princes and annulled the Edict of Restitution (Calvinism banned and Catholicism restored). But failed. The Practice of Absolutism: Western Europe Hapsburg: The family established a hereditary monarchy in Austria in 1282 and secured the title of the HRE from 1452. Austrian and Spanish branches were created when Charles divided the territories between his son Phillip II and his brother Ferdinand; the Habsburgs ruled Spain from 1504-1700, while in Austria the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918. Bishop Jacques Bossuet: (1627-1704) French theologian and court preacher. Wrote Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture, about how gov’t used holy orders so society was organized. Divine-right monarchy absolutism: Type of gov’t where the sovereign (supreme) power was held by a monarch who claimed he was divine right. Gap with theory and practice of absolutism. Monarch’s absolute power was limited by practical realities. 1. Centralized political power 2. Pacified nobility 3. Increased revenue 4. New army of conscripts. divine right monarchy: Divine-right monarchy–god chose kings and their authority was absolute (unrestricted power). Kings are only responsible to God, not Parliament. Cardinal Richelieu: Louis XIII’s chief