Social change

SOCIAL CHANGE Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms. By “ significant” alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social con-sequences. THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE Evolutionary Theory According to evolutionary theory, society moves in specific directions. Therefore, early social evolutionists saw society as progressing to higher and higher levels. As a result, they concluded that their own cultural attitudes and behaviors were more advanced than those of earlier societies. * Unilinear Evolutionary Theories (Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer) – maintain that all societies pass through the same sequence of stages of evolution to reach the same destiny. * Multilinear Evolutionary Theory (Gerhard Lenski, Jr.) – holds that change can occur in several ways and does not inevitably lead in the same direction. Multilinear theorists observe that human societies have evolved along differing lines. Functionalist Theory Functionalist theories of social change start with the advantage that they deal with social statics before dealing with social dynamics. The functionalist perspective was introduced into modern sociology by Emile Durkheim, who examined several aspects of society by asking what function they played in maintaining the social order as a whole. Conflict Theory Conflict theorists maintain that, because a society’s wealthy and powerful ensure the status quo in which social practices and institutions favorable to them continue, change plays a vital role in remedying social inequalities and injustices. Cyclical Theory The cyclical theorists also see a series of stages through which societies must pass. But, instead of ending in a “ final” stage of perfection, they see a return to the starting point for another round. According to Oswald Spengler, a German philosopher, each great civilization passes through successive stages of birth, growth, and decline, with the completed cycle covering about a thousand years. CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE Technological and Economic Changes The practical applications of scientific or other knowledge create social change. * Agricultural advancements * Examples include irrigation, the plow, cotton gin.    * Industrialization  * The process of moving from an agrarian based economy in which the primary product is food to an industrial or post-industrial economy in which the primary product is goods, services and information * The process of changing from a manual labor force to a technology driven labor force in which machines play a large role. This may lead to changes in: * Work — people work outside of the home/community, which lead to changes in gender (value of, child care, value of labor).     * Work became centered and organized around machines.   Alienation. * Weapons production — guns, nuclear weapons. * Information Society.    Information overload. Characteristics of industrialized societies: * Smaller percentage of workforce employed in agriculture * Increased division of labor, specialization of occupations * Increase in education of workforce * Increase in economic organizations (businesses) * Stronger link between government and economy — interdependent * Technological change — new goods and services produced and new occupations result; control of environment and the need to do so. * Geographical mobility * Occupational mobility * Population change: * Demographic transition; move from (1) high birth rates and high death rates (with smaller population sizes) to (2) high birth rates and low death rates (with extreme population growth) to (3) low birth rates and low death rates (with populations maintenance).   * People have fewer children as society industrialized because role of family changes and technological advancements allow control of reproduction. * Families change from extended to nuclear families due to geographic and occupational mobility. Family is no longer mainly seen as an economic unit. Modernization The process of moving from an agrarian to industrial society Characteristics of modern societies * Larger role of government in society and bureaucracy to run governments * Large, formal organizations and division of labor based on specialization of skills and abilities into occupations.   Bureaucracy plays in again here. * Forming of social institutions to regulate behavior. * Laws and sanctions to regulate behavior. * Control over and management of environmental resources: oil, water, land, animals, etc… The ability to mass produce food, energy, etc… * Larger role of science in society to produce knowledge to advance society.   Larger role of education and universities.   * Improved quality of life — higher per capita GDP, ability to buy goods and services, more recreational time, better public health, housing * Self-efficacy * Ability to adapt,  expect, and desire continuous change. Example: change of governments; replacing goods and services such as cars, phone service, marriages; change in occupations and careers.   Urbanization-when large populations live in urban areas rather than rural areas. Bureaucratization Process by which most formal organizations in a society (businesses, government, non-profits) run their organizations via the use of extreme rational and impersonal thinking, an extreme division of labor, and record keeping. All tasks and functions are broken down into small parts which become positions in the organizational hierarchy. Conflict and Competition Examples: * War: due to religion, ethnic tensions, competition for resources. Ideology Ideology often legitimizes inequality. Diffusion rate at which populations adopt new goods and services. Acculturation Acculturation explains the process of cultural and psychological change that results following meeting between cultures. The effects of acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both interacting cultures. At the group level, acculturation often results in changes to culture, customs, and social institutions. Noticeable group level effects of acculturation often include changes in food, clothing, and language. COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR Sociologists define collective behavior as relatively spontaneous and temporary behavior that involves a large number of people engaging in activities that violate conventional norms. THEORIES OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR Social Contagion Theory The basic premise of social contagion theory is that the very fact of being part of a crowd modifies individuals’ behavior and, in a sense, renders them temporarily, if not insane at least irrational and that such behavior will disappear when they leave the crowd. Emergent Norm Theory Ralph Turner and Lewis Killiam developed the emergent norm theory of collective behavior, in which they endorse some aspects of social contagion theory, but reject its basic premise: individuals in a crowd become irrational and insane. They replace this premise with their own:  social actors are norm-following beings; as a result, if conformist behavior is the product of conventional norms, then collective behavior is the product of emergent norms. Value-Added or Structural-Strain Theory For Smelser,  collective behavior’s function is to relieve strain or tension in the social structure. It does not simply emerge as collective madness (contagion theory) or because individuals with common psychological traits get together (convergence theories) or out of conformity to unconventional norms (emergent-norm theory). Instead, identifiable social-structural factors cause collective behavior. Determinants of Structural Strain | Structural Conduciveness | In order for collective behavior to emerge, the very organization of society must make possible the emergence and expression of conflicts. For instance, all democracies respect the right to dissent and the right to free speech and assembly. Collective behavior will be facilitated if those who see themselves as disadvantaged feel ignored or discriminated against by the government or any other authority. | Structural Strain | Structural strain occurs when people perceive a discrepancy between what they have and what they feel they have a right to demand when their actual social conditions fall short of their expectations. Structural strain will also make people more likely to engage in behavior they would otherwise avoid or to believe ideas and rumors they might ordinarily dismiss without a second thought. | Generalized Beliefs | Even if people are unhappy and experience strain, they will not engage in collective behavior unless provided with a very clear and shared definition of the problem, its causes and potential solutions. Often, intellectuals and potential leaders provide such statements that, once accepted, help reduce uncertainty and ambiguity to the situation. | Precipitating Factors | In addition to these determinants, collective behavior will often be sparked by a particular event; for instance, the 1992 Los Angeles riots started after the acquittal of the four white police officers in the Rodney King case. Such an incident usually reinforces the generalized belief and the need for action. | Mobilization for Action | For collective behavior to occur, people have to get together somehow. If people are to participate in collective behavior, they have to have access to the necessary information. | Exercise of Social Control | Social control refers any means that a society, or group, or collectivity uses to enforce its norms against deviant behavior. Agents of social control may include police and the courts of course, but also religious and community leaders, and the media, along with any individual or group with authority. How social control agents react affects the development of collective behavior. | TYPES OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR Crowds Crowds are temporary gatherings of closely interacting people with a common focus. Types of Crowd: * Casual crowds occur when people gather in the same place at the same time with limited interaction so that new norms are less likely to emerge and roles are relatively undifferentiated. People watching street performers or shopping at the mall are a good example of a casual crowd. * Conventional crowds occur when a specific event is planned and large numbers of people are scheduled to attend. There is therefore more interaction, specific norms, and role differentiation than in casual crowds. Examples of conventional crowds are parades, funerals, sport events or graduation ceremonies. * Expressive crowds occur when large numbers of people gather for the specific purpose of experiencing strong emotions. Religious revival shows, Mardi Gras celebrations or celebrity funerals are examples of such crowds. * Acting crowds occur when a collectivity is strongly focused and anger is the dominant emotion. Such crowds are likely to be destructive and violent. Mobs and riots are examples of acting crowds. Mobs-Mobs are highly emotional and violent crowds that target specific individuals or categories of individuals. Mob violence is usually motivated by fear, or anger. Riots-A riot is a violent form of crowd behavior. However, contrary to a mob, it does not focus on a specific target but is undirected. Riots are more likely to cause property damages than mobs. Panic-A panic is behavior that occurs when people in a group suddenly become concerned for their safety. People tend to flee in groups, often stopping to look out for one another. Rumors A rumor is unsubstantiated information passed informally from individual to individual without verification. Characteristics of Rumors: * Rumors are more likely to emerge in a climate of uncertainty when information is scarce but in need so that people will believe whatever is available; * Rumors are not fixed stories, they vary and change as they are passed from individual to individual, several competing versions might emerge; * Rumors are difficult to stop. Individuals might continue to believe a rumor even when accurate information has been provided. In spite of information available on the topic, thousands of people still believe that a UFO crashed in Roswell, New Mexico, in 1947; * Rumors may be central in the development of mobs, riots and panics and other forms of collective behavior; * The mass media and the Internet have accelerated the speed of transmission of rumors. Gossips Gossips are rumors regarding specific individuals and their personal lives. They may be used as a form of social control: praising or shaming certain individuals reinforces conformity to norms of particular groups.   Gossips are also a form of entertainment and a very lucrative business; from gossip columnists to publications such as The National Enquirer, the celebrity gossip business has a very large audience. Urban Legends These are stories that have been very popular but are all false, but, like rumors, they persist. Certain urban legends can be disseminated by the media, as in the claims of large numbers of children kidnapped by satanic cults to participate in rituals and be sacrificed. Mass Hysteria Mass hysteria is a fairly rare type of collective behavior where a dispersed collectivity reacts emotionally and irrationally to a real or perceived threat. Collectivities are more likely to react emotionally and irrationally when there is a general lack of information about a phenomenon. This creates a state of anxiety where individuals are more likely to engage in mass hysteria. Fads A form of collective behavior where large numbers of people enthusiastically embrace some activity or object for a short period of time. It often seems that fads emerge out of nowhere and abruptly disappear as fast they appeared without generating a long-term. Fashion Fashion refers to styles of appearance, thinking or behavior valued at a given point in time in a society and followed by large numbers of people. If fads seem to appear out of nowhere, fashion trends appear in the upper classes as they involve luxury consumption. Fashion is often used as a marker of social distinction and good taste. Crazes Crazes are similar to fads in that they involve massive and rapid consumption and end abruptly. However, in a craze, profit is the major motive. As a result, prices for the desired objects will rise dramatically and will fall just as rapidly when it is over. Public Opinion Public opinion includes widespread ideas, attitudes and beliefs communicated to the decision-makers via polls and surveys to be taken into account in political decisions. Measuring public opinion is so important that all political parties, government and businesses use polls and surveys and multiple institutes exist dedicated exclusively to this task. Propaganda-Propaganda is any information designed to actively shape and influence public opinion. SOCIAL MOVEMENT Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist or undo a social change. In social movements, large groups of people who are usually without political power and influence decide to promote or resist social change through unconventional means.   They identify a problem, determine that responsible parties are failing to address it adequately, and therefore take action, themselves. To be more efficient, participants structure their activities into social movement organizations (SMOs). SMOs share the goals of the social movement and work toward these goals. For instance, the environmental social movement structured formal organizations such as Greenpeace, the Sierra Club, or Earth First!. SMOs may specialize on different aspects of the movement’s cause such as fundraising, lobbying or organizing grassroots campaigns. Similarities with Collective Behavior * Participants engage in unconventional behavior that defies social norms and expectations. * Such participation is strongly influenced by other participants’ behavior. * Such participation relieves strain or tension in society or community or organizations. Differences with Collective Behavior Social Movements | Collective Behavior | Organized | Disorganized | Deliberate | Unplanned | Long-lasting | Brief | THEORIES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT Relative Deprivation Theory Relative deprivation theory, developed by Denton Morrison (1971) is a more general theory about why individuals join social movements. A person experiences relative deprivation when she feels that she is not receiving her “ fair share” of what seems to be available. Therefore, the people who are the worst off are not necessarily the ones experiencing relative deprivation.   Key to the idea of relative deprivation is the notion of expectations, that is, what people think they deserve and want in life. If these expectations are met, people do not experience discontent or relative deprivation. On the other hand, if people compare themselves to their reference groups and find that they have less, they will experience relative deprivation. If an individual feels that everyone else seems to be wealthier or generally seems to have it better, they will experience relative deprivation. A second key to the idea of relative deprivation is the notion of legitimate expectations. Relative deprivation is not simply the idea that people want what everyone else has. It is the idea that they think they deserve it and have a right to it. Therefore, if they do not get what they think they deserve, they think that something should be done to remedy the situation. In other words, expectations are not simple desires. For relative deprivation to emerge, individuals have to perceive their expectations as legitimate. A third key is the notion of blocked expectations, those goals that individuals cannot meet through conventional means. Feelings of relative deprivation result. If expectations are perceived as legitimate AND easy to satisfy, there is no need for social movement. However, if expectations are perceived as legitimate but blocked, individuals will experience discontent and frustration. They will be more likely to want to remedy an unfair situation. Structural Conditions That Increase The Probability Of Emergence Of Social Movements * Large numbers of people must experience relative deprivation; * There must be a high degree of interaction and communication between people experiencing relative deprivation; * The more socially alike individuals experiencing relative deprivation, the easier it will be for them to get together and create a movement; * Movements are more likely to form in a rigidly stratified society because differences between classes are obvious. * The society must have large numbers of voluntary associations to give people a sense that collective activity can make a difference and actually produce beneficial change. Also, a social movement benefits from organizational leadership skills of associations. Resource Mobilization Theory In 1973, Anthony Oberschall published Social Conflict and Social Movements in which he formulated the resource mobilization theory focusing on the social and structural factors affecting a movement’s success or failure rather than the factors motivating people to join social movements. Oberschall points out that relative deprivation cannot fully explain social movements because there is no perfect society that satisfies all its citizens. Discontent is a common feature. For Oberschall, the key factor in a social movement’s success or failure is its capacity to mobilize and efficiently manage resources. Oberschall’s Types of Human Resources | Adherents | Believer in the movement’s goals | Conscience Adherents | Believer in the movement’s goals who do not stand to benefit from its success | Constituents | Adherents who provide resources to the movement (time, money, etc.) | Conscience Constituents | Adherents who provide resources to the movement but do not stand to benefit from its success | Bystander Publics | Individuals who do not participate in the movement and do not particularly care about the movement’s goals | Free-riders | Bystanders who would benefit if the movement succeeds but do not participate in it | Opponents | Individuals outside the movement who oppose the movement’s goals and may create a counter-movement to oppose it | Political Process Theory Political process theory focuses rather on macro-sociological issues that make social movements possible. For McAdam, economic and especially political factors are central to the emergence of social movements. More specifically, McAdam identifies three of such factors: * Organizational strength: the more organized a group is, the more likely its members are to form a social movement and the more likely the movement will succeed; * Cognitive liberation: the more members think their chances of success are good, the more likely they are to make their movement will succeed; * Political opportunities: the more mainstream political allies a social movement has, the more likely it will succeed. New Social Movements Theory The New Social Movements Theory emerged at the end of the 1960s to account for changes in the composition, focus and strategies in some social movements in the Western world. New social movements themselves are a response to the massive social changes brought about by globalization.   The major strength of the theory is to include the influence of macro-sociological factors (economic, political and cultural globalization) in analyzing how collective actions and social movements form, focus, and strategize. The theory also captures how such macro-sociological change is reflected in micro-sociological concerns for social movement participants. Focus of New Social Movement: * Focus on social and cultural issues instead of the economic issues of traditional social movements. * Focus quality of life (environment, peace) and self-determination (contemporary women’s rights, gay rights) because of roots in high-income countries where survival is a less important issue. Accordingly, members tend to reject bureaucratic organizations and adopt a more participatory style. * Membership largely composed of educated middle-class individuals who see themselves as having multiple identities (in terms of class, race, gender, sexual orientation) that they use and combine to promote multiple but interrelated causes. * Distrust for authorities, the government, the business community or the scientific community; although they do not seek to overthrow the government or radically change the social order, movements challenge the legitimacy of institutions of power and promote their own experts or create their own independent research institutes as SMOs. * Focus on multiple issues seen as interdependent. * Both a global and local orientation, as reflected in the slogan “ think global, act local, ” that might be evidenced by championing both global environmental standards and local recycling regulations in their communities. * Efficient use of new communication technologies to establish global connections and networks; such global networks coordinated the massive demonstrations against the World Trade Organization in Seattle in 1999, against the G8 Meeting in Genoa (Italy) in 2002 and the worldwide protests against the War in Iraq in 2003. STAGES IN SOCIAL MOVEMENT Preliminary or Incipiency Stage Social movements usually start with a general feeling that something is wrong. That feeling generates strain or tension or, as we have seen, a sense of relative deprivation. Such feelings can be related to social, economic or political disruptions. At this stage, leaders might emerge to organize participants or a specific figure might be able to reinterpret individual feelings of discontent as social issues. Coalescence Stage At this stage, members start to organize themselves and to raise public awareness concerning the problem. In order to coordinate and structure their efforts, they might create social movement organizations (SMOs). Such structuring requires leadership, tactics and alliances to maximize efficiency of the movement. Raising public consciousness on the issue also involves adopting strategies to use mass media, a potentially powerful recruiting tool. In order to attract media attention, members might engage in collective behaviors such as marches, demonstrations and sit-ins. Institutionalization or Bureaucratization Stage At this point, the movement becomes more formally organized, especially if recruiting strategies have been successful and membership has increased. If initially, movement leaders were selected based on charisma, now leadership is based more on rational-legal authority; leaders might become less “ prophets” and more administrators. Bureaucratization also involves increased division of labor (different task roles for the organization), increased hierarchy (less equality between members). The organization might replace volunteers with paid staff. Such a move might help the movement gain in respectability, but such a managerial turn might also displease initial members and there might be a loss of enthusiasm for the cause.   Also at this stage, the organization shed most radical and extreme members. Decline Social movements usually start with a general feeling that something is wrong. That feeling generates strain or tension or, as we have seen, a sense of relative deprivation. Such feelings can be related to social, economic or political disruptions. At this stage, leaders might emerge to organize participants or a specific figure might be able to reinterpret individual feelings of discontent as social issues. Different Ways That A Social Movement Can End * Success – Social movements sometimes succeed. The cause they promote might become accepted, and laws might be passed that promote their views. * Co-optation – Political authorities may try to undermine a social movement by adopting a “ soft” version of the movement’s agenda. In addition, they might offer the movement’s leaders rewarding positions if they work inside the system rather than challenging it from the outside. Of course, movement leaders who accept such positions might then be accused of “ selling out” by movement members. * Goal Displacement – Goal displacement occurs when a movement focuses on maintaining itself and its organization rather the cause it was created to promote. * Fragmentation – Although members of a social movement might share political, social, or cultural views, they might disagree on strategies, alliances or leadership, so conflicts sometimes arise. If conflict becomes impossible to manage, fragmentation might occur, and splits into separate movements. * Repression – When the authorities consider a movement too challenging to the status quo, they might simply decide to use repressive strategies of harassment, illegal surveillance, multiple arrests, imprisonment, or outright violence. TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT Alternative Social Movements Alternative social movements are least threatening to the status quo and power structure because they only seek limited change in individuals and are not concerned with changing the system. Alternative movements tend to have a narrow focus of interest (one type of behavior) and limit their action to that focus. Redemptive Social Movements Redemptive social movements have a limited focus (specific individuals) but by radically altering those individuals’ behavior, they seek to change the whole person. Fundamentalist religious movements and cults are examples of redemptive movements. Reformative Social Movements Reformative movements seek to change certain limited aspects of the social structure in order to improve society as a whole. Members of reformative movements usually try to achieve their goals and effect change from within the system; they do not try to destroy it. Commonly, reformative movements use the legal system to promote their ideas and will try to challenge what they consider to be unfair laws (Greenberg, 1994). If they do resort to unconventional social actions (marches, sit-ins, demonstrations), they will try to avoid violence. Reformative movements are quite common in democratic countries because democracies guarantee freedom of speech and assembly and voluntary political participation. Reformative movements can be either progressive, (promoting change) or reactionary (trying to resist change or reverse changes already in place). Revolutionary/Transformative Social Movements Revolutionary movements are not interested in working within the system. For members of such movements, the system itself is the problem and it cannot be fixed; therefore, the only solution is to get rid of the system and replace it with a system that members think is better. Revolutionary movements are the most extreme of all social movements and they may openly advocate revolution, that is, the violent overthrow of an existing regime and the reorganization of society as a whole. Conclusion: It is us humans who are the main cause of social change. Every decision we make causes change in our lives. The actions we make and the behavior we show causes change. New creations, inventions, and even ideas made and formed by us also contribute to change. And most importantly, we must know that it is not our own selves that is only affected by those we make but even others near, linked, and even those we don’t think that are affected are also included. COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE Courtship is the period in a couple’s relationship which precedes their engagement and marriage, or establishment of an agreed relationship of a more enduring kind. Difference between courtship and dating DATING *  The goal of dating is to get to know people (and even learn some things about you in the process).    * When dating, you get to know people as acquaintances.   You learn about their likes, dislikes, interest, etc… *  Dating is a temporary place and should be a safe place for getting to know someone. *  during the dating phase, you share in order to learn about one another..   COURTING *  The goal of courtship is marriage. * When courting, you become best friends. * Courting is for a loving and secure relationship *  During the courtship phase, you learn to actively listen and work together to lay a strong foundation for marriage. * During a courtship, you should have open and honest communication with your partner and work together to establish boundaries DATING * During the dating phase, you may find yourself attracted to a person.   However, this is the time for you to establish boundaries and ensure you do not place yourself in situations where you will be tempted.    * The dating phase is not the time to “ meet the family”.   Remember, when dating, you are developing acquaintance-level friendships.    *  you should do things to help you continue to grow as an individual (prayer, reading, studying, counseling, etc…). * ending a relationship is not devastating because you have an acquaintance-level friendship and you both respect the other’s decision to walk away.    COURTING * During a courtship, you should have open and honest communication with your partner and work together to establish boundaries. * Courtship is when you should meet and spend time with each other’s family. * you should seek resources that help you learn how to grow together as one in preparation for marriage (e. g. marriage counseling, reading, open discussions, etc…). * there may be hurt involved from ending the relationship.   However, the honesty and security in the relationship allow you to walk away with mutual respect. Traditional courtship * During Spanish times men is prohibited to be very aggressive or becoming even when they want the lady very much. * If a young man sees a lady he likes he should seek out the help of a go-between, usually a common friend of both family, to ask the permission of the girls father whether he can visit them in their house.   * the suitor is expected to bring ” pasalubong” or gifts to the family and a special one to the girl he likes. This he will have to do everytime he visits the girl’s house.   * In this first visit, the couple will not be left alone on their own to get to know each other. It will just be an informal chatting and introduction and getting-to-know stage between the suitor and the family and making clear of the suitor’s intention to pursue the host’s daughter. * the suitor is then expected to woo the girl by showing up in her house more often and establish rapport with the her family. This is the stage where he does the ” paninilbihan” or servitude. * At night, he will sing ” harana” or love songs outside the girls house by the window with a guitar and his friends serving as back ups.   At night, he will sing ” harana” or love songs outside the girls house by the window with a guitar and his friends serving as back ups. Modern courtship * Filipino online dating websites allow Filipina women to find their potential partner worldwide * With the arrival of cheap mobile phones in the Philippines, ” texting” is the way of modern Filipino courtship communications where a Filipina woman can be reached easily. * It could start from a group date where friends would pair friends up and tease them. Friends could play cupid and set a couple up and leave them on their own to talk then before you know it they are going out on a date. * Modern Filipina ladies are also decisive on their choices. Those who do not really want their suitors would not hesitate on letting them know of this fact. A refused suitor is called ” basted”. * Dating * In a short span of time, a boy and a girl becomes a steady date with or without the knowledge of the parents. Types of Courting * Ligaw — Gulong:  Courting by staying at the lady’s house(nag bababad sa bahay ng nililigawan) * Ligaw- intsik: Courting at daytime( araw kung pumanhik ng ligaw) * Ligaw-tapat: Courting by standing in front of the lady’s house (Panliligaw sa pamamagitan ng pagtayo-tayo sa tapat ng bahay ng dalaga) * Ligaw- tingin:  Courting by only looking at the lady’s face(ligaw sa pamamagitan ng pagmamasid sa mukha ng dalaga) 5 courtship rules 1. You only court one person at a time.  There’s no ” shopping around” once you start courting. It just means that people enter into courtships for the purpose of a serious, future-focused relationship.  2. The man pursues the woman.  While this practice varies from community to community, most groups that favor courtship also favor a more traditional method of wooing. The man initiates the friendship, the ” talk,” and even approaches his and the woman’s parents for their blessing. 3. Family and community are central.  Courtships are always conducted publicly, and with the approval of both parties’ parents. 4. Group activities are encouraged. The goal is to help the couple get to know each other on a friendship level before becoming romantic. The presence of others also helps limit the opportunities for sexual activity. 5. Commitment precedes intimacy.  Courting couples wait until the wedding night to have sex. COURTSHIP AS SOCIAL THEORY * There are some feminist scholars, however, who regard courtship as a socially constructed (and male-led) process organized to subjugate women. *  A social process that socializes both sexes into accepting forms of relationship that maximize the chances of successfully raising children.   COURTSHIP DISORDER * is a theoretical construct in sexology in which a certain set of paraphilias are seen as specific instances of anomalous courtship instincts in men. The specific paraphilias are exhibitionism,  voyeurism,  telephone scatologia,  toichirism, frotteurism, and biastiphilia (paraphilic rape). According to the courtship disorder hypothesis, there is a species-typical courtship process in human males consisting of four phases, and anomalies in different phases result in one of these paraphilic sexual interests. That is, instead of being independent paraphilias, this theory sees these sexual interests as individual symptoms of a single underlying disorder. According to the courtship disorder hypothesis,  there is a species-typical courtship process in humans consisting of four phases. These phases are: “(1) looking for and appraising potential sexual partners; (2) pretactile interaction with those partners, such as by smiling at and talking to them; (3) tactile interaction with them, such as by embracing or petting; (4) and then sexual intercourse Marriage Marriage (also called matrimony or wedlock) is a social union or legal contract between people called spouses that establishes rights and obligations between the spouses, between the spouses and their children, and between the spouses and their in-laws Types of marriages * Arranged Marriage — A marriage that is at some level arranged by someone other than those being married * Common-Law-Marriage — A form of interpersonal status that is legally recognized in some jurisdictions as a marriage even though no legally recognized marriage ceremony is performed or civil marriage contract is entered into or the marriage registered in a civil registry * Polyandry- The marriage of one wife to several husbands. Fraternal polyandry is a variant in which the husbands are brothers * Polygyny- The marriage of one husband to several wives. * Same sex marriage- A marriage between two people who are of the same sex *  Monogamy (i. e., one husband having one wife) *  group marriage (i. e., several husbands having several wives) Marriage customs * At the ” Altar”  – The reason why the bride traditionally stands to the left of the groom at the altar is symbolic of the now-defunct practice of marriage by capture. It enables the groom to keep his right (sword) hand free to defend her from attack and capture by jealous rivals. Carrying the Bride Across the Threshold – Originating in Rome, the bride used to have to be carried across the threshold because she was (or pretended to be) reluctant to enter the bridal chamber. In those days, it was considered ladylike to be hesitant at this point – or at least to look hesitant.   * Flower Girl – The flower girl’s role in the wedding dates from the Middle Ages. Two little girls, usually sisters, dressed alike and carried wheat before the bride in the marriage procession, symbolizing the wish that the marriage would be fruitful. Later, flowers replaced the wheat, and it became customary to strew the flowers on the ground before the bride. Flowers – Ancient Roman brides carried bunches of herbs under their wedding veils as symbols of fertility and fidelity. * Something Old… – Most brides like to follow the superstition that they must wear ” something old, something new, something borrowed, and something blue.” The old is to stand for a bride’s ties to her past; the new represents her hope for the future; and the borrowed means friendship.   * The Bachelor Dinner – This tradition is believed to have originated in Sparta, where the bridegroom entertained his friends at supper on the eve of the wedding. This event was known as the ” men’s mess.” Today this event is usually called a ” bachelor party.”   * The Bridal Shower – It is believed that the first bridal shower took place in Holland when a maiden fell in love with a poor miller. Her father forbade the marriage, but the miller’s friends ” showered” the bride with gifts so she would be able to marry without the benefit of the traditional dowry which helped most brides set up housekeeping. * The Engagement Ring – The gift of a ring is a very old tradition which was used to seal any important or sacred agreement * The Wedding Cake – The wedding cake originated in early Rome, where a loaf of wheat bread was broken over the bride’s head to symbolize hope for a fertile and fulfilling life. * The Wedding Gown – white a festive color emblematic of purity. * The Wedding Ring – The idea of the wedding ring itself dates back to ancient times, when a husband would wrap circles of braided grass around his bride’s wrist and ankles, believing it would keep her spirit from leaving her body. The bands evolved into leather, carved stone, metal, and later silver and gold * Throwing Rice – Throwing rice, grain, or nuts at a wedding is one of the oldest superstitions, and has it roots in fear of evil spirits. * Tying the Knot -two pieces of cord or ribbon together in the marriage ceremony to signify the couple’s becoming one. * Veils & Hiding From the Groom – The practice of covering the bride’s face on her wedding day with veils signifies protecting the bride from the ” evil eye” of jealous rivals.   * Wedding Attendants – would confuse the evil spirits so they would not know which ones were being married. Bride price and dower- the groom or his family were expected to pay a bride price to the bride’s family for the right to marry the daughter, or dower, which was payable to the bride. This required the groom to work for the bride’s family for a set period of time Sex and procreation-common teaching that the “ natural” purpose of sex is for the creation of children, and that any other reason for sex is sinful and a subversion of God’s law.   Cohabitation-is an arrangement where two people who are not married live together in an intimate relationship, particularly an emotionally and/or sexually intimate one, on a long-term or permanent basis. Marriage roles and responsibilities * Giving a husband/wife or his/her family control over a spouse’s sexual services, labor, and property. * Giving a husband/wife responsibility for a spouse’s debts. * Giving a husband/wife visitation rights when his/her spouse is incarcerated or hospitalized. * Giving a husband/wife control over his/her spouse’s affairs when the spouse is incapacitated. * Establishing the second legal guardian of a parent’s child. * Establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children. * Establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses. Marriage restrictions * Age- a person must attain a certain age to be legally allowed to marry. exceptions from the general rule may be permitted if the parents of a young person express their consent and/or if a court decides that said marriage is in the best interest of the young person (often this applies in cases where a girl is pregnant). * Race, ethnicity, tribe, caste and social class-example of such restrictions would be a requirement to marry someone from the same tribe * Gender-It is a relatively new practice that same-sex couples are being granted the same form of legal marital recognition available to mixed-sexed couples. * Consanguinity-Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely * Number of spouses in a marriage-Restrictions against polygamy have been common. Termination * In most societies, the death of one of the partners terminates the marriage, and in monogamous societies this allows the other partner to remarry, though sometimes after a waiting or mourning period. * In some societies, a marriages can be annulled, when an authority declares, that a marriage never happened. * A marriage may also be terminated through divorce.