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Philosophy review

Philosophy Midterm Review sheetBranches of PhilosophyMetaphysics – the branch of philosophy that treats of first principles, includes ontology and cosmology, and is intimately connected with epistemology. A treatise (4th century b. c.) by Aristotle, dealing with first principles, the relation of universals to particulars, and the teleological doctrine of causation. Epistemology – The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its presuppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity. Ethics – that branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions.

Aesthetics – the branch of philosophy dealing with such notions as the beautiful, the ugly, the sublime, the comic, etc., as applicable to the fine arts, with a view to establishing the meaning and validity of critical judgments concerning works of art, and the principles underlying or justifying such judgments. Logic ??“ Valid and sound arguments ??? inductive method??? Ontology – the branch of metaphysics that studies the nature of existence or being as such. Cosmology – the branch of philosophy dealing with the origin and general structure of the universe, with its parts, elements, and laws, and esp. with such of its characteristics as space, time, causality, and freedom.

Schools of Philosophical ThoughtRationalism – The theory that the exercise of reason, rather than experience, authority, or spiritual revelation, provides the primary basis for knowledge. Empiricism – the doctrine that all knowledge is derived from sense experienceSophism – any false argument; fallacyPythagoreanism – the doctrines of Pythagoras and his followers, esp. the belief that the universe is the manifestation of various combinations of mathematical ratiosScholasticism – the system of theological and philosophical teaching predominant in the Middle Ages, based chiefly upon the authority of the church fathers and of Aristotle and his commentators. Utilitarianism – A system of ethics according to which the rightness or wrongness of an action should be judged by its consequences.

The goal of utilitarian ethics is to promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham, an English philosopher, was the founder of utilitarianism; John Stuart Mill was its best-known defender. Schools of Philosophical Thought cont: Platonism – The philosophy of Plato, especially insofar as it asserts ideal forms as an absolute and eternal reality of which the phenomena of the world are an imperfect and transitory reflection. Aristotelianism – the philosophy of Aristotle.

Emphasis upon deduction and upon investigation of concrete and particular things and situations. Stoicism – A philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome. Stoics believed that people should strictly restrain their emotions in order to attain happiness and wisdom; hence, they refused to demonstrate either joy or sorrow. Periods of ThoughtPre-socratic – of or pertaining to the philosophers or philosophical systems of the period before the Socratic period. Any philosopher of this periodClassical ??“ Socrates, Plato, Artist, & Post-artistNeo-Platonic – A philosophical system developed at Alexandria in the third century A. D. by Plotinus and his successors. It is based on Platonism with elements of mysticism and some Judaic and Christian concepts and posits a single source from which all existence emanates and with which an individual soul can be mystically united.

Early Christian ??“ Renaissance ??“ the activity, spirit, or time of the great revival of art, literature, and learning in Europe beginning in the 14th century and extending to the 17th century, marking the transition from the medieval to the modern worldReformation – the religious movement in the 16th century that had for its object the reform of the Roman Catholic Church, and that led to the establishment of the Protestant churches. Scholasticism – the system of theological and philosophical teaching predominant in the Middle Ages, based chiefly upon the authority of the church fathers and of Aristotle and his commentators. Modern ??“ the new science that started asking new questions, not just offering new answers to old problemsEarly British Empiricism – refers to the 18th century philosophical movement in Great Britain which maintained that all knowledge comes from experience. Continental Rationalists maintained that knowledge comes from foundational concepts known intuitively through reason, such as innate ideasPhilosophersPythagoras – Greek philosopher and mathematician who theorized that numbers constitute the essence of all natural things. He developed the Pythagorean theorem and was one of the first to apply mathematical order to observations of the stars.

Greek philosopher, mathematician, and religious reformer. Heraclitus ??“ Early Greek philosopher who maintained that strife and change are the natural conditions of the universeParmenides ??“ Greek philosopher and a founder of the Eleatic traditionSocrates ??“ Greek philosopher whose indefatigable search for ethical knowledge challenged conventional mores and led to his trial and execution on charges of impiety and corrupting the youth. Although Socrates wrote nothing, his method of question and answer is captured in the dialogues of Plato, his greatest pupil. Plato ??“ Greek philosopher. A follower of Socrates, he presented his ideas through dramatic dialogues, in the most celebrated of which (The Republic) the interlocutors advocate a utopian society ruled by philosophers trained in Platonic metaphysics.

He taught and wrote for much of his life at the Academy, which he founded near Athens in 386. Aristotle ??“ Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought.

In his philosophical system, which led him to criticize what he saw as Platos metaphysical excesses, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. Epicurus ??“ Greek philosopher who founded his influential school of Epicureanism in Athens (c. 306) and a utopian community called “ The Garden.” Plotinus ??“ Egyptian-born Roman philosopher who founded Neo-Platonism. His writings are collected in The Enneads. Augustine ??“ Early Christian church father and philosopher who served (396-430) as the bishop of Hippo (in present-day Algeria). Through such writings as the autobiographical Confessions (397) and the voluminous City of God (413-426), he profoundly influenced Christianity, arguing against Manicheanism and Donatism and helping to establish the doctrine of original sin.

Anselm ??“ Italian-born English theological philosopher and prelate best known for his ontological argument for the existence of God. Aquinas ??“ Italian Dominican friar, theologian, and philosopher. The most influential thinker of the medieval period, his philosophy combined Aristotelianism and elements of Neo-Platonism within a context of Christian thought. Philosophers Cont: Erasmus ??“ Dutch Renaissance scholar and Roman Catholic theologian who sought to revive classical texts from antiquity, restore simple Christian faith based on Scripture, and eradicate the improprieties of the medieval Church.

Martin Luther ??“ German theologian and leader of the Reformation. His opposition to the wealth and corruption of the papacy and his belief that salvation would be granted on the basis of faith alone rather than by works caused his excommunication from the Catholic Church (1521). Luther confirmed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, effectively establishing the Lutheran Church. Galileo ??“ An Italian scientist of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries; his full name was Galileo Galilei.

Galileo proved that objects with different masses fall at the same velocity. One of the first persons to use a telescope to examine objects in the sky, he saw the moons of Jupiter, the mountains on the moon, and sunspots. Bacon ??“ English philosopher, essayist, courtier, jurist, and statesman. His writings include The Advancement of Learning (1605) and the Novum Organum (1620), in which he proposed a theory of scientific knowledge based on observation and experiment that came to be known as the inductive method. Hobbes – English philosopher and political theorist best known for his book Leviathan (1651), in which he argues that the only way to secure civil society is through universal submission to the absolute authority of a sovereign. Philosophical Issues / ContrastsIntrinsic ??“ InstrumentalChange ??“ PermanenceIndividualization ??“ Universalization (??? I ??“ U???)A prior ??“ A posterioriCause ??“ EffectImmanent ??“ TranscendentExcess ??“ DeficitNecessity ??“ ContingencySpirit ??“ MatterAsceticism ??“ EgoismDoubt ??“ CertaintyInnate Idea ??“ Sense ExperienceIntuition ??“ PerceptionIntuition ??“ InferenceInductive ??“ DeductiveIdealism ??“ RealismSpiritualism ??“ MaterialismUniversals ??“ ParticularsMajor Outlooks/Theories/BeliefsCynicism ??“ An attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of othersSkepticism ??“ In philosophy, the position that what cannot be proved by reason should not be believed. One of the main tasks of epistemology is to find an answer to the charge of some extreme skeptics that no knowledge is possible. Solipsism ??“ the theory that only the self exists, or can be proved to exist.

Epicureanism ??“ the philosophical system or doctrine of Epicurus, holding that the external world is a series of fortuitous combinations of atoms and that the highest good is pleasure, interpreted as freedom from disturbance or painAtheism ??“ the doctrine or belief that there is no God. Agnosticism ??“ A denial of knowledge about whether there is or is not a God. An agnostic insists that it is impossible to prove that there is no God and impossible to prove that there is oneNihilism ??“ an extreme form of skepticism: the denial of all real existence or the possibility of an objective basis for truth.

Theism ??“ the belief in one God as the creator and ruler of the universe, without rejection of revelationDogmatism ??“ dogmatic character; unfounded positiveness in matters of opinion; arrogant assertion of opinions as truths. Relativism ??“ any theory holding that criteria of judgment are relative, varying with individuals and their environments. Absolutism ??“ the principle or the exercise of complete and unrestricted power in government. Egoism ??“ the habit of valuing everything only in reference to ones personal interest; selfishnessAltruism ??“ the principle or practice of unselfish concern for or devotion to the welfare of othersAsceticism ??“ the doctrine that a person can attain a high spiritual and moral state by practicing self-denial, self-mortification, and the like. Hedonism ??“ the doctrine that pleasure or happiness is the highest goodDeterminism ??“ The philosophical doctrine that every state of affairs, including every human event, act, and decision is the inevitable consequence of antecedent states of affairs.

Freedom ??“ the power to exercise choice and make decisions without constraint from within or without; autonomy; self-determinationMajor Outlooks/Theories/Beliefs Cont: Dualism ??“ the view that there are just two mutually irreducible substancesMonism ??“ the reduction of all processes, structures, concepts, etc., to a single governing principle; the theoretical explanation of everything in terms of one principlePluralism ??“ a theory that there is more than one basic substance or principleAtomism ??“ the theory that minute, discrete, finite, and indivisible elements are the ultimate constituents of all matter. Idealism ??“ any system or theory that maintains that the real is of the nature of thought or that the object of external perception consists of ideas. Materialism ??“ the philosophical theory that regards matter and its motions as constituting the universe, and all phenomena, including those of mind, as due to material agencies. Realism ??“ the doctrine that objects of sense perception have an existence independent of the act of perceptionUniversalism ??“ the doctrine that emphasizes the universal fatherhood of God and the final salvation of all soulsIndividualism ??“ the doctrine that only individual things are realSpiritualism ??“ the belief or doctrine that the spirits of the dead, surviving after the mortal life, can and do communicate with the living, esp. through a person (a medium) particularly susceptible to their influence.

Naturalism ??“ the view of the world that takes account only of natural elements and forces, excluding the supernatural or spiritual. Gnosticism ??“ The doctrines of certain pre-Christian pagan, Jewish, and early Christian sects that valued the revealed knowledge of God and of the origin and end of the human race as a means to attain redemption for the spiritual element in humans and that distinguished the Demiurge from the unknowable Divine BeingManichaeanism – a religion founded by Manes in the third century; a synthesis of Zoroastrian dualism between light and dark and Babylonian folklore and Buddhist ethics and superficial elements of Christianity; spread widely in the Roman Empire but had largely died out by 1000 Unique Terms/Ideas/PhrasesPantheism ??“ that God is the transcendent reality of which the material universe and human beings are only manifestations: it involves a denial of Gods personality and expresses a tendency to identify God and nature. Monotheism ??“ the doctrine or belief that there is only one God. Deism ??“ belief in the existence of a God on the evidence of reason and nature only, with rejection of supernatural revelationIntention-Act-Consequence (??? i-a-c???)Essence ??“ the inward nature, true substance, or constitution of anything, as opposed to what is accidental, phenomenal, illusory, etc. Absolutism ??“ the principle or the exercise of complete and unrestricted power in government.

Objectivism ??“ One of several doctrines holding that all reality is objective and external to the mind and that knowledge is reliably based on observed objects and events. Being ??“ that which has actuality either materially or in idea??? First to believe in order to understand??? Teleology ??“ that final causes existEntelechy ??“ a realization or actuality as opposed to a potentialityNatural Law ??“ a principle or body of laws considered as derived from nature, right reason, or religion and as ethically binding in human societyLogos ??“ the rational principle that governs and develops the universe. Becoming ??“ any change involving realization of potentialities, as a movement from the lower level of potentiality to the higher level of actuality. World of Forms/Ideas ??“ Form & Matter ??“ Virtue = KnowledgeInnate Knowledge ??“ The producers ??“ Guardians ??“ a person who guards, protects, or preservesUnique Terms/Ideas/Phrases Cont: Auxiliaries ??“ a person or thing that gives aid of any kind; helperMaterial Cause ??“ any of the four things necessary for the movement or the coming into being of a thing, namely a materialEfficient Cause ??“ something to act upon itFormal Cause ??“ a form taken by the movement or developmentFinal Cause ??“ a goal or purposeVirtue ??“ moral excellence; goodness; righteousnessTemperance ??“ moderation or self-restraint in action, statement, etc.; self-control. Prudence ??“ caution with regard to practical matters; discretionIntegrity ??“ adherence to moral and ethical principles; soundness of moral character; honestyAutonomy ??“ the condition of being autonomous; self-government, or the right of self-government; independence??? Golden Mean??? Intrinsic Value ??“ The value of a company or an asset based on an underlying perception of the value.

Instrumental Value ??“ Dilemma ??“ a situation requiring a choice between equally undesirable alternatives. Intuition ??“ an immediate cognition of an object not inferred or determined by a previous cognition of the same object??? City of God??? & ??? City of the World??? Scientific Method ??“ a method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant data are gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically testedDialectical Method ??“??? An unexamined life is not worth living???; ??? Know thyself??? Self Realization ??“ Self-knowledge ??“ Self-understanding-Unique Terms/Ideas/Phrases Cont: Self-actualization ??“ (Inner vs. Outer self)Relativism ??“ any theory holding that criteria of judgment are relative, varying with individuals and their environments. Subjectivism – the doctrine that all knowledge is limited to experiences by the self and that transcendent knowledge is impossible.

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