Marshall plan

The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the large-scale economic program, 1947—1951[1], of the United States for rebuilding and creating a stronger economic foundation for the countries of Europe A sit-in or sit-down a form of protest involving occupying seats or sitting down on the floor of an establishment The United States was the first country in the world to develop nuclear weapons, and is the only country to have used them in warfare, with the separate bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in World War II. Before and during the Cold War it conducted over a thousand nuclear tests and developed many long-range weapon delivery systems.[3] It maintains an arsenal of 5, 113 warheads[1][2] and facilities for their construction and design, though many of the Cold War facilities have since been deactivated and are sites for environmental remediation. Joseph Raymond ” Joe” McCarthy (November 14, 1908 — May 2, 1957) was an American politician who served as a Republican U. S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion.[1] He was noted for making claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the United States federal government and elsewhere. Ultimately, McCarthy’s tactics and his inability to substantiate his claims led him to be censured by the United States Senate. Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 — April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African American civil rights movement.[1] He is best known for being an iconic figure in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.[2] King is often presented as a heroic leader in the history of modern American liberalism.[3] The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980. In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance. In some situations it was accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and armed rebellion. The process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not fully achieve their goals although, the efforts of these movements did lead to improvements in the legal rights of previously oppressed groups of people.(blacks in the US) McCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of disloyalty, subversion, or treason without proper regard for evidence. The term has its origins in the period in the United States known as the Second Red Scare, lasting roughly from the late 1940s to the late 1950s and characterized by heightened fears of communist influence on American institutions and espionage by Soviet agents. Originally coined to criticize the anti-communist pursuits of U. S. Senator Joseph McCarthy, ” McCarthyism” soon took on a broader meaning, describing the excesses of similar efforts. The term is also now used more generally to describe reckless, unsubstantiated accusations, as well as demagogic attacks on the character or patriotism of political adversaries. The Korean War (25 June 1950 – armistice signed 27 July 1953[28]) was a military conflict between the Republic of Korea, supported by the United Nations, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, supported by the People’s Republic of China (PRC), with military material aid from the Soviet Union. The war was a result of the physical division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 — December 26, 1972) was the 33rd President of the United States (1945—1953). As President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s third vice-president and the 34th Vice President of the United States (1945), he succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945, when President Roosevelt died less than three months after beginning his historic fourth term. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U. S. 537 (1896), is a landmark United States Supreme Court decision in the jurisprudence of the United States, upholding the constitutionality of state laws requiring racial segregation in private businesses (particularly railroads), under the doctrine of ” separate but equal”. The decision was handed down by a vote of 7 to 1 with the majority opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown and the dissent written by Justice John Marshall Harlan. Associate Justice David Josiah Brewer was absent at the ruling because of his daughter’s sudden death the day before. ” Separate but equal” remained standard doctrine in U. S. law until its repudiation in the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education. After the Supreme Court ruling, the New Orleans Comité des Citoyens (Committee of Citizens), which had brought the suit and arranged for Homer Plessy’s arrest in order to challenge Louisiana’s segregation law, replied, “ We, as freemen, still believe that we were right and our cause is sacred. “[1] Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U. S. 483 (1954),[1] was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional. The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896 which allowed state-sponsored segregation. Handed down on May 17, 1954, the Warren Court’s unanimous (9—0) decision stated that ” separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.” As a result, de jure racial segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and the civil rights movement The Cold War (1947—1991), was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition existing after World War II (1939—1945) between the Communist World — primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies — and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States and its allies. Although the primary participants’ military force never officially clashed directly, they expressed the conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, conventional and nuclear arms races, appeals to neutral nations, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race. The Little Rock Nine were a group of African-American students who were enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. The ensuing Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus, and then attended after the intervention of President Eisenhower, is considered to be one of the most important events in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. On their first day of school, troops from the Arkansas National Guard would not let them enter the school and they were followed by mobs making threats to lynch. The League of Nations (LON) was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference, and the precursor to the United Nations. The League was the first permanent international security organization whose principle mission was to maintain world peace. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The League’s primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing war through collective security, disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.[1] Other goals in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, trafficking in persons and drugs, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.[2] The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions. The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the main victorious Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany, in 1945-46, at the Palace of Justice. The first and best known of these trials was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT), which tried 24 of the most important captured leaders of Nazi Germany, though several key architects of the war (such as Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels) had committed suicide before the trials began. The initial trials were held from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946. The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the US Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among them included the Doctors’ Trial and the Judges’ Trial. This article primarily deals with the IMT; see the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials for details on those trials The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, popularly known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act (Public Law 84-627), was enacted on June 29, 1956, when Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law. With an original authorization of 25 billion dollars for the construction of 41, 000 miles (66, 000 km) of the Interstate Highway System supposedly over a 20-year period, it was the largest public works project in American history through that time.[1]The money for the Interstate Highway and Defense Highways was handled in a Highway Trust Fund that paid for 90 percent of highway construction costs with the states required to pay the remaining 10 percent. It was expected that the money would be generated through new taxes on fuel, automobiles, trucks, and tires. As a matter of practice, the Federal portion of the cost of the Interstate Highway System has been paid for by taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel. Dwight David ” Ike” Eisenhower ( born October 14, 1890 — March 28, 1969) was a five-star general in the United States Army and the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961, and the last to be born in the 19th century. During World War II, he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe, with responsibility for planning and supervising the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944—45, from the Western Front. In 1951, he became the first supreme commander of NATO.[2] Desegregation busing in the United States (also known as forced busing or simply busing) is the practice of assigning and transporting students to schools in such a manner as to redress prior racial segregation of schools, or to overcome the effects of residential segregation on local school demographics. Desegregation is the process of ending the separation of two groups usually referring to races. This is most commonly used in reference to the United States. Desegregation was long a focus of the American Civil Rights Movement, both before and after the United States Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education, particularly desegregation of the school systems and the military (See Military history of African Americans). Racial integration of society was a closely related goal. Though public schools were technically desegregated in 1954 by the U. S. Supreme Court decision in Brown vs Board of Education, many were still de facto segregated due to inequality in housing and racial segregation in neighborhoods.[clarification needed] In the 1971 Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education ruling, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of busing to end school segregation and dual school systems,[1] on Charlotte, North Carolina and other cities nationwide to affect student assignment based on race and to attempt to further integrate schools.[2] However, in 1974’s Milliken v. Bradley they placed an important limitation on Swann when they ruled that students could be bused across district lines only when evidence of de jure segregation across multiple school districts existed. Japanese-American internment was the relocation and internment by the United States government in 1942 of approximately 110, 000 Japanese Americans and Japanese who lived along the Pacific coast of the United States to camps called ” War Relocation Camps,” in the wake of Imperial Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor.[1][2] The internment of Japanese Americans was applied unequally throughout the United States. Japanese Americans who lived on the West Coast of the United States were all interned, while in Hawaii, where more than 150, 000 Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the territory’s population, 1, 200[3] to 1, 800 Japanese Americans were interned.[4] Of those interned, 62% were American citizens.[5][6] The Truman Doctrine (listen) was a policy set forth by U. S. President Harry S Truman on March 12, 1947 stating that the U. S. would support Greece and Turkey with economic and military aid to prevent their falling into the Soviet sphere.[1]Truman stated the Doctrine would be ” the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.” Truman reasoned, because these ” totalitarian regimes” coerced ” free peoples,” they represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Truman made the plea amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War (1946—1949). He argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid that they urgently needed, they would inevitably fall to communism with grave consequences throughout the region. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO (pronounced /ˈneɪtoÊŠ/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l’Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium,[3] and the organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U. S. supreme commanders. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organization’s goal was ” to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down”.[4] Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion–doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO’s military structure from 1966. The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (or ” The Great March on Washington,” as styled in a sound recording released after the event)[1][2] was a large political rally in support of civil and economic rights for African Americans that took place in Washington, D. C. on Wednesday, August 28, 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his historic ” I Have a Dream” speech advocating racial harmony at the Lincoln Memorial during the march.[3]The march was organized by a group of civil rights, labor, and religious organizations,[4] under the theme ” jobs, and freedom.”[3] Estimates of the number of participants varied from 200, 000 (police) to over 300, 000 (leaders of the march). Observers estimated that 75—80% of the marchers were black and the rest were white and other minorities. The march is widely credited with helping to pass the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965). Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 — October 24, 2005) was an African-American civil rights activist, whom the U. S. Congress called ” the first lady of civil rights”, and ” the mother of the freedom movement. On December 1, 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks, age 42, refused to obey bus driver James Blake’s order that she give up her seat to make room for a white passenger. Her action was not the first of its kind. Irene Morgan in 1946, and Sarah Louise Keys in 1955,[2] had won rulings before the U. S. Supreme Court, and the Interstate Commerce Commission, respectively, in the area of interstate bus travel. Nine months before Parks refused to give up her seat, 15-year-old Claudette Colvin refused to move from her seat on the same bus system. In New York City, in 1854, Lizzie Jennings engaged in similar activity, leading to the desegregation of the horsecars and horse-drawn omnibuses of that city.[3] But unlike these previous individual actions of civil disobedience, Parks’ action sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Containment was a United States policy using military, economic, and diplomatic strategies to stall the spread of communism, enhance America’s security and influence abroad, and prevent a ” domino effect”. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to expand communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam. It represented a middle-ground position between détente and rollback. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U. S. diplomat George F. Kennan. As a description of U. S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, a report that was later published as a magazine article. It is a translation of the French cordon sanitaire, used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s. Schenck v. United States, 249 U. S. 47 (1919), was a United States Supreme Court decision that upheld the Espionage Act of 1917 and concluded that a defendant did not have a First Amendment right to freedom of speech against the draft during World War I. Ultimately, the case established the ” clear and present danger” test. Korematsu v. United States, 3333 U. S. 214 (1944)[1], was a landmark United States Supreme Court case concerning the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066, which ordered Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II. The term Eisenhower Doctrine refers to a speech by President Dwight David Eisenhower on 5 January 1957, within a ” Special Message to the Congress on the Situation in the Middle East”. Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from U. S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression from another state. Eisenhower singled out the Soviet threat in his doctrine by authorizing the commitment of U. S. forces ” to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid against overt armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism.”[1] Medgar Wiley Evers (July 2, 1925 — June 12, 1963) was an African American civil rights activist from Mississippi who was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery after being assassinated by White Citizens’ Council member [2] Byron De La Beckwith.[3] Evers became active in the civil rights movement after returning from overseas service in World War II and completing secondary education; he became a field secretary for the NAACP. Evers’ murder, and the resulting trials inspired protests as well as numerous works including music and film. James H. Meredith (born June 25, 1933) is an American civil rights movement figure. He was the first African American student at the University of Mississippi, an event that was a flashpoint in the American civil rights movement. Motivated by the broadcast of President John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address (which did not mention civil rights per se)[1] Meredith decided to apply his democratic rights and then made the ultimate decision to apply to the University of Mississippi.[1] Meredith’s goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration as to the issue.[1] Malcolm X ( May 19, 1925 — February 21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz‎), was an African-American Muslim minister, public speaker, and human rights activist.[2][3][4][5] To his admirers, he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans.[6] His detractors accused him of preaching racism, black supremacy, antisemitism, and violence.[7][8][9][10][11] He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history,[12][13][14] and in 1998, Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century. Watkins v. United States, 354 U. S. 178 (1957), was a case brought to the Supreme Court of the United States after John Watkins was convicted under 2 U. S. C. § 192, for failing to answer questions while posed as a witness relating to people he may have known to be communist. Under a committee of the House of Representatives Committee on Un-American Activities, Watkins stated he did not wish to answer these questions, as they were outside of the scope he had been called upon, and of the committee. The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HCUA) or House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC),[1] (1938—1975) was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives. In 1969, the House changed the committee’s name to ” House Committee on Internal Security”. When the House abolished the committee in 1975,[2] its functions were transferred to the House Judiciary Committee. The committee’s anti-communist investigations are often confused with those of Senator Joseph McCarthy.[3] McCarthy, as a U. S. Senator, had no direct involvement with this House committee.[4] McCarthy was the Chairman of the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Government Operations Committee of the U. S. Senate, not the House. The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a political and social protest campaign that started in 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, USA, intended to oppose the city’s policy of racial segregation on its public transit system. Many historically significant figures of the civil rights movement were involved in the boycott, including Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., Ralph Abernathy, and others, as listed below. The boycott resulted in a crippling financial deficit for the Montgomery public transit system, because the city’s black population who were the drivers of the boycott were also the bulk of the system’s paying customers. The ensuing struggle lasted from December 1, 1955, when Rosa Parks, an African American woman, was arrested for refusing to surrender her seat to a white person, to December 20, 1956 when a federal ruling, Browder v. Gayle, took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional.[1] The Bonus Army was the popular name of an assemblage of some 43, 000 marchers–17, 000 World War I veterans, their families, and affiliated groups–who gathered in Washington, D. C., in the spring and summer of 1932 to demand immediate cash-payment redemption of their service certificates. Its organizers called it the Bonus Expeditionary Force to echo the name of World War I’s American Expeditionary Force, while the media called it the Bonus March. It was led by Walter W. Waters, a former Army sergeant. A Hooverville was the popular name for shanty towns built by homeless people during the Great Depression. They were named after the President of the United States at the time, Herbert Hoover, because he allegedly let the nation slide into depression. The term was coined by Charles Michelson, publicity chief of the Democratic National Committee.[1] The name Hooverville has also been used to describe the tent cities commonly found in modern-day America. The Normandy landings were the landing operations of the Allied invasion of Normandy, also known as Operation Overlord and Operation Neptune, during World War II. The landings commenced on Tuesday, 6 June 1944 (D-Day), beginning at 6: 30 AM British Double Summer Time (GMT+2). In planning, D-Day was the term used for the day of actual landing, which was dependent on final approval.