Complete Essay Samples on War

Free essay on preventing terrorism problems in counterterrorism intelligence in the united states

Such groups threaten and do not hesitate to blastoff fatal attacks to the United States' citizens; hence, the intelligence units are limited in their attack plan since it is easier to seek peace with the terrorists than to allow the attacks to lead to such massive loss of innocent lives of the dwellers of the →

While the protagonists in the cold war sought to promote global ideologies, both essay examples

Introduction Instead of battles over control of lands or seas the Cold War was a battle of rhetoric which was also the major factor of the internal nationalist tensions within the USA and the USSR. This essay explores the history in each country and tries to determine whether the nationalistic movements inside the USSR →

Cold war literature – the spy who came in from the cold, waiting for godot, and red alert

The period ofCold Warliterature dating from the second half of the twentieth century is distinctly seen as a time of enduring relevance; marked with a deep moral questioning of morality and the institution, a heightened sense of paranoia, as well as with a firm shattering of religious persuasion. Significant texts arise from particular ways →

To what extent did the my lai massacre impact on the vietnam war

They had been told that there were Viet Cong hiding in the village, but the rumours were false, so the company decided to attack the innocent villagers, as they probably supported the Viet Cong anyway. The impact of the My Lai massacre on the Viet Cong was quite big, as they were not in the →

Class of civilization

Huntington's thesis " The Clash of Civilization, " where the thesis outlines a future where the " great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural" and not primarily on the basis of ideology or economic. Now by the end of cold war and dismemberment of the Soviet Union, →

Should richard m. nixon visit red china?

However, to fully examine the decision made, one would have to look at many of the background information surrounding the voyage. This includes; Nixon's popularity with America as well as theVietnam War, which at that time had yet to be resolved, America's relationship with the Soviet Union, America's relationship with Taiwan and the Republic of →

Changing nature of war essays example

One thing that is common in both arguments is that both accept the change in the warfare after the era of the cold war. The essay has tried to focus on several changes that are visible in the warfare of old times and after the era of cold war.

Nuclear doctrine:

The attitude of the head of state Doctrine of US: US was the first country to attain nuclear capabilities and pioneer of nuclear weapons in the world 12 March 1947 Truman presented nuclear doctrine and policy was to communism containment Free people Change in US policy during Berlin crisis in 1948 US started making atomic →

Evaluation of america’s cultural influence on the world.

Where Shehadeh's work, What We Think of America , indicates both an admiration and anger towards the United states, Parris's work, It's Time We All Signed Up for the Rest of the World Team, outlines a definitive negative towards the America and what it stands for. The works of Matthew Parris, a South African →

Global politics essays. chapter 2.

The Cold War embodies many of the principles of the realist theory, with both the United States and Soviet Union constantly vying for military supremacy and forming military alliances, such as NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Since neither is able to integrate the qualities of the opposing theory, both remain incomplete, and as a result →

Prompt: assess the role of the domino theory in us/soviet relations.

Role of the Domino Theory a." The domino theory was the basis for the United States strategy of containment, and the reason for entering the Vietnam War. Domino Theory and the Vietnam War a".

Good essay on george f. kennans role in the policy of containment

Harriman and like-minded people like George Kennan were instrumental in formulating U.S.A.policies and strategies for the Cold War, which influenced Truman's administration. In 1946, when the Department of State asked Kennan to explain why the Soviet Union was against the idea of creating the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank, his reply, now known →

History repeats itself

1960's - United States Involvement in the Vietnam War In the 1960's, the United States involvement in the Vietnam War was at a peak. 1980's The Fall of the Berlin Wall The fall of the Berlin Wall was a major event that occurred in the 1980's.

Global midterm review

After a period of rebuilding and reorganization, the sections under the control of the United States, England, and France were returned to the control of the German government. The first goal was to establish a new balance of power in Europe, which would prevent imperialism within Europe, such as the Napoleonic Empire, and maintain the →

Subject: history

The East | relationship with one another, leading to| | | believes in communism where the | the Cold War.| | | government imposes its decisions on the | | | | people with the citizens having little or| | | | no freedom of rights.| | | | | | | | | | →

Nuclear testing in australia and the pacific

In the 1930's, during the eve of World War II, the potential to kill with great efficiency became the common objective both for the military and politicians alike. In addition to this, Regnault states that between 1958 and 1963 there was a removal of leaders in New Caledonia and French Polynesia by the →

Term paper on history

Civilization in Cold War The end of the Second World War left the world with two superpowers the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics that nearly controlled every aspect of politics, economics and social life worldwide. The heavy budgetary spending of the USSR on weapons led →

Jesse pham

Who better, in the 1960s, was able to universally speak to the world through a unique sound of music than The Beatles? The Beatles' music was of great enjoyment to everyone.

Analyse the role of cuba in the development of the cold war

The Bay of Pigs invasion was a complete fiasco that made the Americans aware of the increasing power of the island under the Castro Government. The USA had to adopt the Monroe Doctrine once again; this doctrine states that the US has the right to intervene in Latin America to protect the Independence →

Why was the cold war called a war essay

The whole world was in fear as they could not imagine an outbreak of another war especially with the growth in weapons of mass destruction that was common during these days. However, as much as this period of rivalry between the U.S.and the U.S.S.R.was referred to as the " cold →

History unit 5 test review

Once there Churchill gave a speech to the American people emphasizing the need for English peaking people to unit outside of the UN to re order the world. The policy of Containment was put to action in the Truman Doctrine, The Marshall Plan, the Berlin airlift and the formation of NATO.1.

No domino effect

No domino effect The americans were involved in the war in the first place was to stop the domino theory and to prevent vietnam from becoming communist. Protests The lack of press censorship and conscription had a huge impact to the war.

The american influence in the post-cold war era: a critical perspective

Withglobalization, the capacity of the state was undermined, and transnational corporations and global firms became the landmarks of a new world order, which some labelled as post-democracy. In the age of post-democracy, the debate around the reorganization of power in the international system and the sustainability of the main continuities in US foreign policy such →

Reflection essay on the end of the cold war

In this different politicalenvironment, the security challenges were no longer existent on a state-to-state level, because of the growing importance of sub-state actors. This essay will focus on the reorganization of the international system after the end of the Cold War, and will discuss the new challenges to global security, posed by the demise of →

Korean civil war as part of the cold war

The Korean War can be seen as an episode of the Cold War, although it started as a civil war, it continued as a conflict between the United States and Russia. This essay will talk about Domestic affairs which led to the start of the civil War, how the war turned into a National conflict, →

Cold war and mccarthyism: mccarthy using the communist methods

After hearing and seeing McCarthy the Americans specifically began to fear him and his tactics, as the threat of McCarthyism began to rise and freedoms begin to fall due to McCarthy, Americans came to the conclusion that communism was a negative thing. The Cold War was a conflict-driven to war with minimal confrontations with the →

Example of themes and events in history essay

This " war" was the state of military and political tension after World War II between the powers of the Western world and the allies of the Eastern bloc (led by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). This event is noteworthy because it described the polarization of the superpowers of the world, →

Truman, zhdanov, and the origins of the cold war

To see the Soviet counter-arguments is a revelation, and in many ways a surprise. Zhdanov's argument in his " The Two Camp Policy" speech presents an entirely different view of the world, and of world history, and the assumptions in his account were certain to lead to →

Vietnam war

Chapter 10: A Generation in War and Turmoil: The Agony of Vietnam It has been known that the Vietnam War affected many American soldiers who were involved in the war physically and psychologically. My grandfather did not want to be in the Vietnam War because he thinks it was unnecessary.

Research paper on bay of pigs

The principal argument is that the failed invasion of the Bay of Pigs was a terrible embarrassment to the Kennedy administration, and it is of the belief that the failed Invasion ultimately led to the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Bay of Pigs invasion is one of the significant events that marked the Cuban revolution. The →

In the 1930’s during the great depression, many people

In the 1930's during the Great Depression, many people turned to Communism to answer the problems that Capitalism seem unable to solve. Because of reporters like Walter Duranty, there was only a one sided story to the Soviet Union.

Literature as a political weapon during the cold war

Books and articles have always reflected society and the values held. In the 1960s, there was political unrest and upheaval, affecting literature in United States as it was used as a political weapon and power tool to extract doubts about the conflicting sides. The Cold War created a stressed environment for writers and the created →

The fear of communism in us

The U.S.along with other European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty of Organization , which was a unified military command to resist the Soviet presence in Europe. For example, the U.S.has provided foreign aide to many countries in times of need.

Example of essay on the cold war and the nuclear arms race

Abstract " The nuclear race" was called the confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States for supremacy in nuclear weapons during the Cold War. Despite its ruinous, it has led to significant scientific discoveries in many technological and military fields. Some of the most revolutionary breakthroughs →

Innocence was lost once again by pitts critical thinking examples

These did not shock the nation since it was just attempts and the state had taken much precaution to prevent their impacts to the nation as a whole. They only remembered the incident of 1930s that had put the nation on the lithers which led to the war of 1940s.

Reflection essay on expansion of nato

These expansions would increase the membership of NATO to 25 countries, making it one of the most organized and important military alliances in the modern times. Conclusion Expansion of NATO has to be seen from a broader and longer perspective. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997: The Blessings of →

Apush: the enduring vision ch 27 notes

Yates v.U.S.-The justices overturned the convictions of Communist Party officials under the Smith act. The resumption of nuclear testing produced much radioactive and political fallout.

Hiroshima historians ressess

As University of Southern Mississippi military historian John Ray Skates has noted in his book, the Invasion of Japan: Alternative to the Bomb, "[General] Marshall, who believed that retention [of the emperor] was a military necessity, asked that the members [of the Joint Chiefs of Staff] draft a memorandum to the president recommending that the →

Fall of communism in eastern europe, 1989

Thousands of East Germans streamed into the West, and in the course of the night, celebrants on both sides of the wall began to tear it down. The collapse of the Berlin Wall was the culminating point of the revolutionary changes sweeping East Central Europe in 1989.

If i die in a combat zone review

It was the height of the counter culture revolution, the civil rights movement the drive for higher education, middle class advancement, the " Great Society", the industrial community servicing the military, and most notably, the Vietnam war and conscription into service. The time frame of O'Briens If I Die in a Combat Zone is majorly →

The atom bomb

The dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki remains among the most controversial events in modern history. As American policymakers struggled with how to use a powerful new technology and what the long-term impact of atomic weaponry might be, not just on the Japanese but on domestic politics and America's international relations →

American involvement in korean conflict

Although formulation of the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, and the Berlin Airlift suggested that the United States had a particular concern with the spread of communism in Europe, America's policy of containment extended to Asia as well. Japanese troops surrendered to the Russians in the north and to the Americans in the south.

The marshall plan

Without a general recovery international trade would be damaged and the US was unlikely to recover any of the substantial loans it had made to its allies. Russia rejected the offer of help and neither her satillites nor Czechoslovakia, which was showing interest, were allowed to take advantage of Marshall Aid.

Jacqueline kolkebeck

This war was lost by the United States because of the poor judgments made by the press on portraying the war to the people in America causing a lack of support for the war. The Vietnam War was similar to the Korean War in the opposing sides.

Mearsheimer paper

Wealth is important for a state to obtain because it is the economic basis of military power and that is the most important part in becoming a hegemon. In identifying outcome, Mearsheimer explains how states use strategic planning to control the shift of power within states, and itself.

The red umbrella

The main characters of the story are Lucia and Frankie, a brother and a sister that went to a lot of harsh situations. One day when the revolution hit home, freedom was stripped away and a lot of people began to disappear.

Running head: the positive side

Running head: The Positive Side The Positive Side of the Vietnam War The Positive Side of the Vietnam War War is a tough gritty world that describes the destruction of people and countries in the name of nationalism; it is difficult to justify war and give a positive outcome when shown the disaster it →

As people rely more and more on technology to solve problems, the ability of humans to think for themselves will surely deteriorate.

Whether the ability of humans to think will deteriorate by relying on technology is hard to judge and it is up to our understanding of the meaning of thinking. In summary, technology, from the making and using stone tools to unbelievable space technology which will bring human to stars, will never reduce the ability →

Can knowledge be a burden rather than a benefit?

The scientists, who engaged in the innovation of these weapons, are some of the transcendent people in the world. With the augment of knowledge, the new creations and new materials to make these weapons are going to become more powerful that with one blow can harm a country.

Marshall plan

The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the large-scale economic program, 1947 1951[1], of the United States for rebuilding and creating a stronger economic foundation for the countries of Europe A sit-in or sit-down a form of protest involving occupying seats or sitting down on the floor of an establishment The →

Hearts and minds

Hearts and Minds The documentary Hearts and Minds, directed by Peter Davis displays the many perspectives of the Vietnam War through video footage and interviews of Vietnamese and American Soldiers, Vietnamese and American Citizens, and other individuals. Floyd speaks continuously throughout the clip, using a narrative cut's to navigate between clips of the bombed, →

Duck and cover

Duck and Cover Cold War and Communism The nine minute 1951 movie Duck and Cover teaches children what to do in the case of a nuclear attack against America. The major similarity is that the panic and threat from some nation outside of the United States is still a clear and present danger.

Inevitability of cold war essay

This is because most of the decisions and conclusions the two leaders reached were at counter-purposes to each other. The race for atomic weapons was the third cause of the cold war. As a result, the two continued to build and stockpile a huge arsenal of weapons. The forth cause of cold war →

The new cold war essay

Introduction The Cold War began after the Second World War which ended in 1945 and it was a response to conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States of America. As a response or strategy the US developed the Containment Policy to limit the spread and success of communism. The Containment Policy →

Example of essay on how the cold war shaped americas society, economy and politics

The cold war stirred confrontations around the world as the United States and the Soviet Union fought to influence other nations with their economic and political ideologies. The cold war provided a stage for the enlargement of federal powers. The power of the States went back to federal government and many decisions about the lives →

A history of 19th and 20th century russia

Opposition forces began to emerge, including the Constitutional Democratic Party (founded in 1905, and known as the Kadets), the Socialist-Revolutionary Party (founded in 1901, and known as the Esers) and the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (founded in 1898, and known as the RDSLP). Lenin mobilized the Red Army and the Cheka to →

Nsc-68: the blueprint for cold war militarization

Prior to the Wars, the United States had followed basically an isolationist policy with regards to other nations, but with the threat of Russia, the members of the National Security Council sought to inform President Truman, and through him the people of the United States, of the importance of containing the communist threat as well →

Essay on the cold war

This became particularly prevalent in the last ten years with Russia being strongly opposed to America's invasion or Iraq and indeed, the US's reaction and increased interest in foreign policy following the events of September 11th have led to relations becoming more strained between the two nations. Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, America became more →

Joseph stalin

During the second half of the 1930s, Stalin instituted the Great Purge, a series of campaigns designed to rid the Communist Party, the military and other parts of Soviet society from those he considered a threat. Books were strictly censored by the state and Stalin ordered the writing of a new book called " A →

Matthew a. torres

Leo Szilard's A Petition to the President of the United States was a direct method of communication to the Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. A petition to the president of the united states..

Forzana ali

The Soviet Union became determined to have a nuclear capability that was equal to the United States. The Russians were using a trick to get what they wanted from the Americans.

Australia in the vietnam war

Australia in the Vietnam War Australia in the Vietnam War How did the Australian government respond to the threat of communism after WW11? Australia should not have joined in the Vietnam War because of the loss of fathers, brothers, and sons.

Argumentative essay on globalization and the internet

Huntington's study in the patterns of conflict in " The Clash of Civilizations" more influential in the globalization of our blue planet. Friedman argues that the world has become increasingly globalized, and this globalization has become an effective and permanent replacement for the Cold War. Friedman, in effect, argues wholeheartedly for a hugely dramatic shift →

Truman doctrine

These events prompted the development of the Truman Doctrine - the US foreign policy to contain the spread of Communism. Truman's 1947 Address that introduced the doctrine to the world, his own personal thoughts, and the support and criticism of the policy will be examined. The limitation of the source is that the book was →

A comparative study between the roles of truman and stalin in the development of the cold war

Compare and contrast the roles of Truman and Stalin in the course and development of the Cold War The Cold War was a period of political conflict and military tension which persisted for several decades, from 1947 to 1990. The significance of Truman's and Stalin's roles can be demonstrated through the foreign policies →

I am the grass

Thus in Daly Walker's " I Am the Grass, " the narrator deals with the struggles of life from coming home after the war in Vietnam, finding something to do with his time and life, and returning to Vietnam. Riding around Vietnam brings back the memories of the war and the narrator cannot help but →

What would be on the exam?

Berlin Blockade: (June 24th , 1948 - May 12th , 1949) Why they were in Berlin: - Yalta conference - Plan was to go to Berlin, occupy Berlin and then leave - Stalin stays Spread of communism - Everyone was trying to not go to war against Russia because it's a civilian area and there →

Atomic bomb – hiroshima

Because if this, and the amount of destruction the atomic bombs brought, it was months and years before American's could understood the full impact of those bombs on the Japanese and on the world. Even the crew that dropped the bomb on Hiroshima was unprepared for the extent of the damage.

Who was more to blame for the cold war, the usa or the ussr?

Who was more to blame for the cold war, the USA or the USSR? This is due to the combination of the vivid memory of the Second World War and the acquired financial and nuclear power of the Soviets.

John lewis gaddis and the cold war research paper examples

Introduction The Anglo-Americans and the Russians seem to be moving to attain the same goal to hold in their hands the destinies and fate of half of the world. He claims that Reagan was a vital part of the collapse of the Soviet Union and eventual collapse of the Cold War (rhapsodyinbooks, Review →

Example of status of america essay

However, most of the effects of the Cold War made the USA military stronger and more dominant than other world powers' militaries. The Cold War resulted in an expensive and massive investment in military resources by USA and USSR. Even though the military was so strong due to the cold war, the nation's economy was →

Essay on the cold war and u.s. diplomacy

The commanders of America must tie in competition on the country's instructional action during the Cold War to amateur the infrastructure for the next creation of public diplomacy. The Cold War And U.S.

Thesis sample

In the study of Lee and Maslog on " Asian Regional Conflicts and the War in Iraq: A comparative Framing analysis", the results show that the Asian newspapers used a war journalism frame in covering regional conflicts but deployed a peace journalism frame in covering the War on Iraq. The fact that the country is →

The middle east amidst the cold war

By and by, the US was attempting to extend its ace Western base and contain the Soviets. In spite of the fact that the tenet appeared to be fitting from the US viewpoint, it showed little enthusiasm for the worries of the Arab nations. Be that as it may, these arrangements affirmed the US promise →

Free research paper on american foreign policy on the cold war and modern russia

Both became the leader of the West and the East as the world's superpowers in the Cold War, with one becoming the de-facto leader of the international community and the other becoming a silent entity in the European region. However, while both countries had accepted a temporary truce to settle the war in Germany; upon →

George orwell

The pigs on the farm Snowball, Napoleon & Squealer gained power by using persuasion techniques and being the smartest animals on the farm. The pigs maintained power and authority over most of the rebellion and they achieved this by teaching and helping the other animals on the farm.

Alexander david garsez

The Socialist Republic of Viet Nam was formed in 1975 after the fall of Saigon and the South Vietnamese government.U.S.involvement with the state extends back roughly twenty years before this when Japan was forced to surrender to the U.S.in 1945. Vietnamese culture is heavily influenced by the ancient styles of the Chinese in art, philosophy, →

Development of the war research paper example

After the Soviet Union the desire of the west, to control the Eastern Europe it precipitated the World War 2 in order to maintain its superiority in this area, the basis of the cold war became apparent. In 1926, Russia responded by funding a workers' strike in Britain causing the ties between the two countries →

Example of the greatest weapon – adaptability and creativity term paper

The Germans and Japanese boasted precision weaponry that was, in many ways, the envy of the world, and this skill had much to do with the success the Axis forces encountered during the war's early years. The Seafire's design allowed for a greater roll rate, which gave it an edge in airborne combat over the →

Example of essay on eisenhower’s broad front strategy argument

From the operational perspective, the pincer movement that was the core of the broad front strategy meant that the Allies were more comfortable in this tactic that would enable them to surround the enemy and debilitate them. Now that we have considered the thesis statement and the political, strategic, and operational imperatives that contributed to →

Free essay on judy canova

By becoming one of the most prominent comediennes and country music songwriters in the 1940s and 1950s, Judy Canova broke many expectations and paved the way for popular female artists in popular music. In the 1940s, patriotism was a very big component of the cultural milieu - World War II ignited a great surge of →

Vietnamese war argumentative essay example

The war was very necessary for the security of the United States. United States believed that if one country adopted communism, then other more countries would follow suit and communism. This is why the war was necessary. Those who say that the war was not necessary argue that many United States citizens died.

Singapore after the war research paper

First, there were immense food shortages; it was difficult to get extra food to Singapore, as countries that produced rice before were not able to spare the surplus rice to sell to the country. Even now, there is a declining birth rate that is threatening to reach emergency levels; while this is the entirely opposite →

Hiroshima atomic bomb case study example

This group made up mostly of scientists, came to the conclusion that the object of such an unprecedented bomb type must satisfy the following conditions (according to Robert Oppenheimer): - " Since it is expected that the atomic bomb should produce the greatest destruction by the primary shock wave, and the subsequent destruction - due to →

Three journeys of selfdiscovery essay

Huck Finn, the central character of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, who is on the run on a raft journey down the Mississippi, is forced to confront his own attitudes to racism and slavery. In My Name is Asher Lev there is, in a sense, no single turning point: from the very start of the →

Good example of cahiers du cinema and the french new wave research paper

Cahiers became an incredibly influential focal point for some of the most adventurous and challenging film critics in Europe to talk about film in very radical ways, cultivating a community that included the likes of Jean-Luc Godard, Francois Truffaut and more (many of whom would become influential directors within the French New Wave movement). With →

Good essay on history exam questions

Assess with respect to two of the following: Relief, Recovery, Reform. The Great Depression is a title of the economic depression in the world in the decade before the World War II. Yet, Roosevelt managed to control the economic stability of the country and lead it to the economic growth and growth of the workplaces.

Free essay on effects of world war ii on the american economy

Section A: Plan of Investigation Most of the people in the current generation believe that war and essentially investing in the military is good for the economy. This was a direct effect of the reduction of income inequality. - The levelling of the inequality in income established the consumer oriented economy of USA. - Debt →

Hiroshima and nagasaki research paper

This write up focus on the pros and cons of the bombings of the two cities of Japan: Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the Second World War. Background information During the course of the Second World War, On August 6 1945, the US military bombed the two famous cities of →

The end of the us isolationist foreign policy essay examples

The End of the US' Isolationist Foreign Policy The United States, at present, is considered the only remaining superpower in the globe after its successes in the World Wars and the Cold War. These wars and ideological changes also paved the way for the US to finally move away from isolation and into →

Free plot and relationship to world war ii movie review example

The battle was a turning point in the World War II because that was the first battle that Germany had actually lost during this period. The German army surrendered despite Hitler's command that they fight until the last man. This battle was a turning point of World War II in terms of how the allies →

Free the incarceration of japanese americans during world war ii research paper sample

The main reason they were targeted was because of the suspicion that they some were sympathizers of the Japanese government and army that had just bombed the Pearl Harbor. Faulty reasons that had no ground and that suggested that many Japanese were sympathizers, and indeed spies of the Japanese government were used to target the →

Good book review about japanese attack on pearl harbor

The Japanese attack on the Pearl Harbor angered and outraged the United States government to the extent that America abandoned its isolationist policy and immediately after the attack, it declared war against Japan hence this marked the official engagement of United States of America on the World War 11. The →

Example of the incas, the aztecs essay

The king was considered as the child of the sun. They were good agriculturalists and advanced their technology to architecture and city building. The Spanish Conquering the Aztec and the Inca Empires The Spanish reached the Inca territory around 1526.

Free japan and germany: foreign policy before world war 2 term paper example

This is the reason why these two countries were able to supply the equipment needed to fight the allies for a sustained period during the war. The ideals of communism went against the Japanese ideals at the time and the Japanese government saw it as a threat to its power.

Example of research paper on the crimean war – 1854

Until the onset of the Crimean Wars in the early 1850s, Europe's five major powers engaged in a " complex" practices in dealing with allaying potentially dangerous confrontations. One example of the outcome of the Crimean War was the disassembling of the pact between the conservative Russian, Prussian, and Austrian monarchies known as